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NVPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES
3 3433 08181597 3
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Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2008 with funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
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http://www.archive.org/details/biographicalreviOObiog \
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BIOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
-OF'-
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ctp|iJfr imi m
[iiiiiiik,
4^^ 111 a
alontaining Biogvapl)ical Sketches of Jpionccra an^ CcaMng ^iti^cns.
"Biography is the only true history." --Emerson.
CHICAGO- BIOGRAPHICAL REVIEW PUBLISHING CO.
1892.
5is^"
TIIK ..h.^ lOUK
405470B
A&'UlU. Lli.^oX AND
liLubN t'oirsUAiio.xs
B 1947 L
■0^
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
George Washington 9
John Adams 14
Thomas Jefferson 20
James Madison 2G
James Monroe . 32
John Quincy Adams 38
Andrew Jnclison . . 47
M.irlin Van Buren 52
William Henry Harrison 56
John Tyler 00
James K. Poll; 64
Zachary Taylor 68
Millard Fillmore ..- 7
Franklin Pierce 76
James Buchanan 80
Abraham J>incoln 84
Andrew Jolinson E!3
Ulysses S. Grant 96
H.B.Hayes... 103
J. A. Garfield 109
Chester A. Arthur 113
Grover Cleveland 117
Benjamin Harrison 120
CONTENTS.
BIOGI^APHIGAL SI^E^ITGHES.
^ !
Adams, Wm. T 244
Agnew, Jas. M. 321
Alexander, W. L 288
Allard, Cud 271
Allen, A. K 306
Allen, D. H 382
Allison, Jos 430
AUphin.G W 133
All|ibin, Z 134
Anderson, E. M (ilO
Anderson, Frank 820
Anderson, Uobert .WO
Anderson, V 405
Angler, F L 258
Arenz, J. A 236
Armstrong, Thomas 508
Aten, C. L 438
Aten, Hobert. .. 391
Avery, Philander 181
Ayers, M 144
B
Bacon, H. M 458
Bader, Wni 291
Biigby, John. C 150
Baker, N. \V .541
Baujan, John 496
Baujan, H.J 508
Barnevcastle, G. W 580
Barry,' L. T 378 '
Barton, Thos 406
Baxter, II. B 337
Beatty, J. J 508
Becker, Conrad .538
Beckwith, E. W 203
Bell, Ira 589
Bennett, John. L 238
Berry, F. E 139
Berry, O. A 233
Berlhoir, Edward .520
Black, Isaac .549
Black, J. F 128
Black. John. H 296
Black, J. M 174
Black, U. S 616
Black, W.T 132
Blackburn, B. M 369
Bleyer, J. W .523
Blose, D. A 474
Bokemeier, Chas 246
Bolle, E. H 488
Bollman, W. C 201
Boone, N. II 471
Bordenkirclier, Geo 143
Bowe, Mrs. M. F 606
Boyd, Mark 160
Boyd, Richard 540
Brackenridge, \V. H 357
Bradbury, J. T 159
Brannan, Stephen 521
Briar, Joseph 272
Brockiuan, Wash 131
Brockschmidt, Christian ,503
Broker, Wm A 287
Brooks, Martin 164
Brown. Uobt 280
Browning, J.J 393
Brumback, W. L .504
Buck, J. J :ii8
Buracker. Wm 1,53
Burnside. Wm. H 301
Bush, KIchard 533
Byrns, G. A 341
C
Cady, F. E .507
Cady, Henry 209
Cadv, .^I. E 283
Calef, .•<. L 146
Campbell, G. S 220
Campbell, Geo. W 515
Campbell, L. C 313
Campbell, Pauline 464
Campbell, Wm 365
Carles, L. .M 166
Curls, J. II 4.58
Carr, David 440
Carter, Thomas H 259
Challant, T. J 497
Clark, Abner A 323
Clark. Elias .522
Clark, F.A 439
Clark, J. H 529
Clark, J. K 187
Clark, J. T 316
Clark, L. W 188
Clark, T.J 200
Clark, W. A 316
Cleek, M. M 403
Clitford, Michael 170
Coil, A S 488
Coleman, Wm. II 270
Colt, D. P 889
Coningham, Grove 289
Conover, Geo. 367
Cook.S. W 541
Cosner, Jos. L 350
Cox, Wm. M 164
Cramer, Euglebert 576
Crampton, S. C .. 391
Craske. Henry 151
Crawford, Jas 170
Crum, G. W 219
Crura, H.J 443
Crum, Jas 436
Crum, Thos. J 312
Cunningham, A 343
Cunningham, James 416
Cuningham, T. E 51M
Curry, F. M i(jl
D
Daniel, J. W 413
Darnell, Jesse 597
Davis, F. E 360
Davis, J. A 307
Davis, J. H 41.5
Davis, W. B 180
Davis, Wm. J 199
De Counter, Samuel 311
Demaree, W. L 381
Deppe, J. H 396
De Witt, Jas 263
De Witt, Jas. L 497
Dick, Levi 216
Dirreen, John 345
Dodds, David 371
Dodge, J. S 290
Dorsett, (; 420
Dorsett, W. D 157
Downing, F. E 584
Druse, W. H 577
DucliiUilt, Christian 3.57
Dunlap, C. .M 491
Dunn, Chas. N 130
Dunn, R. H 805
Dupes, Christian 239
Dyson. Edwin 333
E
Edgar, A. C 137
Edmonston, Enoch 195
Edwards, J. M 507
Eifert, Geo. H 260
Elliott, John 333
Ellis, S. E 304
Emmerson, Wm. T 588
Erwin, Geo. W 599
Erwin. Lewis D 401
Evans, Hiram 437
F
Fields, G. 1 249
Fischer, Henry Jr .545
Flinn, J. C 387
Foote, John 618
Foster. H. T 179
Frank, Ed S 449
Frankenfleld.Theo 473
Freesen, Wm 594
Frey, John. Geo 485
Frisby, Geo. W 525
Fulks, R. B 512
Funk, H. C 612
CONTENTS.
G
Gapeu, Tho? 587
Gaim, Heury 443
Garner, I. R 581
Garner, W. S 423
Gaut. W. P 493
Gerrish, Cj-nlhia 4Gfi
Gerrish, Jacob D 466
Gibson, Ira N 480
Gifford, Jos 233
Glandon, Jobn 454
Glaze, ^\. W 245
Glover, W. S 561
Goodell, J. H 385
Green, Nancy 198
Greenwell, Wrrt. M 170
Greer, Geo 302
Greer, J. L 578
Greer, M. W 130
Greve, Henry 417
Griffith, R. H 478
Griffith, W. H 558
Grimwood W. M 516
Grover, Jas 519
Grover, H. P 530
H
Hackmau, E. F 211
Hackman, Wm 235
Hageman, A. L 567
Hagener, Ed 495
Hagener, John H 320
Hager, Lyman 432
Hale, Wm 505
Hall, E. G 445 i
Hambaugli, J. M UOl
Hammer, F. A 242 {
Hansraeyer, H 127
Harbison, Martha J 352
Harbison, Moses 470 }
Harding, Peyton 548
Harris,\\Iaro 557 !
Harshey, Amos 450
Hash, Zachariah 490
Hayes, J. W 579
Heaton, Hemy W 401
Heaton, John' 379
Hedgcock, A. J 193 [
Hedgcock, Josliua 344
Heriou, David 143
Herzberger, Conrad 390
Hierman H. A 537
Higgins, Jackson 279
Hiles.Jas 219
Hill, A 575
Hill, Chas 451
Hill, Israel 359
Hills, John. T 517
Hindniau, Samuel 552
Hines, H 433
Hinman, Mrs. JI 556
Hines, H 433
Hotimau, Geo. H 551
Hoffman, J. (' 511
Hood, S.J 271
Horrom, Cyrus 181
Hortou, John. U 324
Howell, Jacob 524
Howell, Thos. S 383
HuescUeu, John 421
Huff, G. P 479
Huge, F. W 512
Hunt. Jos 197
Huppers, Wm 136
I Huss, C. J 611
Huss. John. F 301
I
Irwin, C. X 441
Jackson, Ezra 205
Jackson, Mary 590
Jaques, Hiram 256
Jockisch, Ernest 620
Jockisch, Wm 346
Johnson, C. F 294
Johnston, D. W. C 600
Jokisch, C. T 145
Jokisch, C. G 141
Jokisch, Philip 377
Jones, C. E 210
Jones, Thos 353
Juett, Chas. H- 535
K
Kallasch, Adolph 402
Keil, H. C 241
Keith, P. R 486
Kendrick, John. G 613
Kennedy. Charles 426
Kerley, King 410
Kerr, John 196
Kircher, John 607
Kirkliam, Geo. H ... .527
Kloker, L. F 398
Knight, Thos 252
Korsmeyer, F. W 153
Korsmeyer, II. H 400
Korte, Henry C 273
Krohe, August 562
Krohe, Henry W 282
Krohe, Fred 259
Krohe, Henry C 310 I
Krohe, Lewis E 395
Krueger, C S 467
Kruse. F. H. D 465
Kuhl, George 377
Kuhlmann, Chris 381
L
Lambert, Wm J 534
Lancaster, Hejiben 352
Lane, CM.... 484
Lang, F. C 340
Larash, W I 308
Launer, T. C 595
Lawler, J. Thomas 480
Lawrence, Frank 429
Leach. E. D 317
Lee. W. H 392
Leek, H 477
Leeper. A. A 330
Leib, E 571
Lewis, Azariah 222
Linn, D. C .570
Listmann, John 374
Little, Robt ,574
Logsdon, Aaron 476
Logsdon, Andrew o26
Logsdon, Joseph . 531
' Logsdon, Perry 263
Lovekamp, H. H 554
Lowry, A. K 175
Lucas, G. W 407
Lucas, Newton 155
Lucas, Wm 384
Lutterell, Mrs. S. B 348
Lyons, Daniel 598
{ M
Main, Z. E 318
Manlove, Wm. B 348
Marshall, A. L 399
ilarlin, Rachel D 414
Maltliew, James D 332
Mayreis, Conrad 314
McCahe, Dr. A. A 560
McCabe, John 159
-AlcCaskill, W. H 583
McClinlock, J. W 539
McCoi mick, A. B 425
JIcCov, G. W 344
:\IcCreery, W. T 494
McDannold, J. J 194
McDannold, T. 1 246
McFarlaud, R. N 324
JIcKee, Wm 334
McMaster, R. B 330
McPhail, Angus 536
Mead, A. J 300
Mead, R. H 312
Meats, Isaac 459
ilerscher, J. W 356
Jlerz, John 483
Meserve, N. P 5G3
Meservey, Joseph 297
Meyer, Fred 551
Meyer, F. W 204
Meyer, Henry 535
Meyer, H. C 339
Meyer, H. W 274
Milby, E. T 554
Miller, Aaron 280
Miller, Samuel 592
Mills, R. W 253
Milnei, R 390
Misenhimer, Isaac. . . 515
Mohlmann, W. G 234
Moore, Ale.x 481
Moore. J. B 278
Moore, S. A 566
Morrell, Wm 434
Morris, J. W 473
Muhlert, Francis. ... 585
M umford, Wm. N 404
Muuroe, Thomas 125
Murphy, J. P .503
CONTENTS.
N
Neeley, James 484
Neeley, J. E 544
Ne wbokl, H. Y 575
Newman, Kobt ; 453
Nicholson, J. S 244
Nieman, C. E 473
Niestrarlt, H. C 553
Noble A. L 343
Nokes, S. D 261
Norbury, C. J . . . 237
O
Oelgen, Wui 142
Oetgen, H. W 455
Orr, D. W 588
Or«i-,J. W 572
Osborn, H. .F 370
Owens, D. W 3^4
P
Parke, Jos 544
Parke, Overton 349
Parrolt, Tlios. P 227
Parsons, Norman 223
Pattesoii, Jonathan 138
Patterson, Jas. M 559
Pence, Joseph : 32a
Perry, 1 241
Perry, Jas 509
Perry, AVm 557
Persinger, L. G 326
Petetish, S. H 372
Pevchouse, I. N 428
Phelps, Chas. II 531
Philippi, P. P 35>i
Pilger, C 368
Pilger, \Tm 50(i
Plaster. Jeptha 498
Price, F. C 240
Price, Jlrs. Wm 140
Price, Wm. T 305
Prince. F. K 4-;4
Pruett, J. S 167
H
Ranney, S. T 174
Ravenscroft, Mary F 411
Read, Jas. M 468
Redman, B F 200
KedHeld, T. M 361
ReeTe, 8. A . 202
Reid Duncan, 294
Reno, W. C 563
Rice, Chauncey 163
Rich, Robert 435
Richardson, Geo. E 574
Rickard, P. W 189
Rigg, J. N 287
Rigg, Peter 309
Rink, Anton 295
Ritchea, George 319
Ritchey, Chas. D 546
Ritchey, F. T 601
Ritchey, Jacob .S35
Ritter, Henry D 350
Robinson. J. F 281
Robison, Jas. N 172
Rogge, H. H 404
liohn, Casper 228
Rohn, J. lienry .. 231
Rohn, Wm 483
Rottger, F. W 179
Rowland, B L o(i4
Rowland, T. .1 510
Runkle, Darius ... 452
Ryan, Thos 249
.s
Sandidge, John 299
Sands, RE 604
Saunders, Mrs. C 555
Savage, Henry 8 355
Scanland, S. W 261
Scbaad, Andrew 275
Schaar, Theodore 460
Schaeffer, C. A 336
Schewe, Wm 569
Schisler, Lewis 515
Schmitt, Geo. J 485
Scbmoldt, H. M 183
Schroder, Samuel M 292
Schroeder, H. J 274
Schullz, H. C 315
Schullz, John 468
Schuraan, Adam 154
Scoggan, W. D 172
Scott, E. J 167
Scott, Leonidas 139
Scott, T. W 188
Scott, T. W 196
Seaman, J. W 221
Seasly, Adam P 221)
Seckman, Nancy P 204
Seeley, E. H. 0 184
Serrot, Leonard 448
Settles, Gilderoy 444
Sewall, Wm 456
Shafer, Mrs. E 169
Shank, John 147
Sbupe, W. K 331
Sielschott, A. H 177
Six, A. D 214
Skiles, H. A 518
Skiles, 0.swell 375
Slack, N. G 565
Smith, A. M 363
Smith, D. G 431
Smith, J. J 495
Smith, T. L 469
Snyder, Geo. E 500
Snyder, J. F 604
Snyder, J. H 397
Snyder, J. W 135
Spencer, J. M 207
Spring, Ebenezer
Stark, Henry 439
Stephens, Daniel 229
Stevenson, Wm 373
Stock, Casper 422
Stout, A. L 532
Stout, F. M 350
Stover, D. Marion 165
Stribling, I. M 418
Stutsman, J. 8 a25
Sutherlaud, II. R 56 f
Sultou, Nathan 337
T
Talkemeyer, Wm 459
Taylor, Duncan 193
Taylor, H. W 217
Taylor, Robt 437
Teel, Jas. A 185
Thomas, Peter 447
Thomas, Wm 571
Thompson, A. M 301
Thompson, J. D 218
Thron, David 535
Tinney, C. M 368
Treadway, E. N 269
Treadway, W. T 213
Trone, Geo. W 149
Tureman, J. IT 614
Tyson, Wm. T 266
U
Unland, John 284
Unland, Dr. W. G 591
Utter, G. D 257
V
Van Deventer, J. F 191
Van Deventer, L. J 419
Van Deventer, T. R 285
Venires. Henry 347
Vette, Henry 475
W
Wagner, George 388
Wagner, Gregory, Jr 364
Walker, C:. T 300
Walker, D. N 265
Walker, John H 538
Walker, J. S 617
Ward. Wm. W 398
Warden, F. A 156
Watkins.Jas. M 324
Watts, Thos. W 463
Way, Wm. A 309
Webb, Allen 542
Webb, John 586
Webb, J. W 487
Weigard, Wm 503
Wellfare, F. E 162
Wells, R 149
Wetzel, John. B 311
Whetstone, Marcus 462
Wier, Geo. H 598
Wight, Jesse 308
Williams, G. W ~'47
Williams, P. S 430
Williams, R. E 501
Williams, T. R 207
Wilson, B. R 613
Wilson, D. D 276
Wilson, Geo. W. & F. M 619
Wilson, Jas. M 613
CONTENTS.
Wilson, Thos 293
Wilson, Wm. B 613
Winbold, F 596
Witte, Heniy F 251
Wond, Wm 489
Wright, S. G 493
Wyatt, W. .M 408
Y
Young. Mrs. Almira 543
Young, J. A 231
Z
Zahn Henry 550
Ziuimer, Lewis, Sr., 573
Zimmer, Lewis,.Jr., 597
Zimmerman, Geo. \Y 440
t Zimmerman, Jacob 389
(3)^
GEORGE IVASH/NGTON
EORGE WASHING- TON, the "Father of his Country" and its first President, 1789- '97, was burn Febru- ary 22, 1732, in Wash- V ' infjton Parish, West- moreland Co u n t}', \'irginia. His father, Augustine Wash- ington, first married Jane But- ler, who bore him four chil- dren, and March 6, 1730, he married Mary Ball. Of six children by his second mar- riage, George was the eldest, the others being Betty, Samuel, John, Au- gustine, Charles and ^fild^e<^, of whom the youngest died in infancy. I^ittle is known of the early years of Washington, beyond the fact that the house in which he was born was burned during his early child- hood, and that his father thereupon moved to another farm, inherited from his paternal ancestors, situated in Stafford County, on the north bank of the Rappahannock, where he acted as agent of the Principio Iron Works in the immediate vicinity, and died there in 1743.
From earliest childhood George devel- oped a noble character. He had a vigorous constitution, a fine form, and great bodily Strength. His education was somewfiat de- '
' fective, being confined to the elementa'.*y branches taught him by his mother and at a neighboring school. He developed, how- ever, a fondness for mathematics, and en- joyed in that branch the instructions of a private teacher. On leaving school he re- sided for some time at Mount Vernon with his half brother, Lawrence, who acted as his guardian, and who had married a daugh- ter of his neighbor at Belvoir on the Poto- mac, the wealthy William Fairfax, for some time president of the executive council of the colony. Both Fairfax and his son-in-law, Lawrence Washington, had served with dis- tinction in 1740 as officers of an American battalion at the siege of Carthagena, and were friends and correspondents of Admiral Vernon, for whom the lattcr's residence on the Potomac has been named. George's inclinations were for a similar career, and a midshipman's warrant was procured for iiim, probably through the influence of the Admiral ; but through the opposition of his mother the project was abandoned. The family connection with the Fairfaxes, how- ever, opened another career for the 3^oung man, who, at the age of sixteen, was ap- pointed surveyor to the immense estates of the eccentric Lord Fairfax, who was then on a visit at Belvoir, and who shortly after- ward established his baronial residence at Greenway Court, in the Shenandoah Valley.
PRES/DENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
Three years were passed by young Wash- ington in a rough frontier Hfe, gaining ex- perience which afterward proved very es- sential to him.
In 175 1, when the Virginia inihtia were put under training with a view to active service against France, Washington, though only nineteen years of age, was appointed Adjutant with the rank of Major. In Sep- tember of that year the failing health of Lawrence Washington rendered it neces- sary for him to seek a warmer climate, and George accompanied him in a vo3'age to Bai ladoes. They returned earl^- in 1752, and Lawrence shortly afterward died, leav- ing h.i large property to an infant daughter. In his will George was named one of the executors and as eventual heir to Mount Vernon, and by the death of the infant niece soon succeeded to that estate.
On the arrival of Robert Dinwiddle as Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia in 1752 the militia was reorganized, and tlie prov- ince divided into four districts. Washing- ton was commissioned by Dinwiddle Adju- tant-General of the Northern District in 1753, and in November of that j-ear a most important as well as hazardous mission was assigned him. This was to proceed to the Canadian posts recentl}- established on French Creek, near Lake Erie, to demand in the name of the King of England the withdrawal of the French from a territory' claimed by Virginia. This enterprise had been declined by more than one ofticer, since it involved a journey through an ex- tensive and almost unexplored wilderness in the occupancy of savage Indian tribes, either hostile to the English, or of doubtful attachment. Major Washington, however, accepted the commission with alacrit}' ; and, accompanied by Captain Gist, he reached Fort Le Boeuf on French Creek, delivered his dispatches and received reply, which, of course, was a polite refusal to surrender the posts. This reply was of such a character
as to induce the Assembly of Virginia to authorize the executive to raise a regiment of 300 men for the purpose of maintaining the asserted rights of the British crown over the territor}' claimed. As Washing- ton declined to be a candidate for that post, the command of this regiment was given to Colonel Joshua Fry, and Major Washing- ton, at his own request, was commissioned Lieutenant-Colonel. On the march to Ohio, news was received that a party previously sent to build a fort at the confluence of tiie Monongahela with the Ohio had been driven back bv a considerable French force, which had completed the work there be- gun, and named it Fort Duquesne, in honor of tiie Marquis Duquesne, then Governor of Canada. This was the beginning of the great " French and Indian war," which con- tinued seven years. On the death of Colonel Fr}', Washington succeeded to the com- mand of the regiment, and so well did he fulfill his trust that the Virginia Assembly commissioned him as Commander-in-Chief of all the forces raised in the colony.
A cessation of all Indian hostility on the frontier having followed the expulsion of the French from the Ohio, the object of Washington was accomplished and he re- signed his commission as Commander-in- Chief of the Virginia forces. He then pro- ceeded to Williamsburg to take his seat in the General Assembly, of which he had been elected a member.
Januar}- 17, 1759, Washington married Mrs. Martha (Dandridge) Custis, a young and beautiful widow of great wealth, and de- voted himself for the ensuing fifteen years to the quiet pursuits of agriculture, inter- rupted onl_v bv his annual attendance in winter upon the Colonial Legislature at Williamsburg, until summoned by his country to enter upon that other arena in which his fame was to become world wide.
It is unnecessary here to trace the details of the struggle upon the question ol local
n BO RGB WASHINGTON.
self-government, which, after ten years, cul- minated by act of Parliament of the port of Boston. It was at the instance of Virginia that a congress of all the colonies was called to meet at Philadelphia September 5, 1774, to secure their common liberties — if possible by peaceful means. To this Congress Colonel Washington was sent as a dele- gate. On dissolving in October, it recom- mended the colonies to send deputies to another Congress the following s])ring. In the meantime several of the colonies felt impelled to raise local forces to repel in- sults ."uid aggressions on the part of British troops, so that on the assembling of the next Congress, May 10, 1775, the war prepara- tions of the mother country were unmis- takable. The battles of Concord and Lex- ington had been fought. Among the earliest acts, thercfcjre, of the Congress was the selection of a commander-in-chief of the colonial forces. This office was unani- mously conferred upon Washington, still a member of the Congress. lie accepted it on June 19, but on the express condition he should receive no salary.
Me immediately repaired to the vicinity of Boston, against which point the British ministry had concentrated their forces. As early as April General Gage had 3,000 troops in and around this proscribed city. During the fall and winter the British policy clearly indicated a purpose to divide pub- lic sentiment and to build up a British part)- in the colonics. Those who sided with the ministry were stigmatized by the patriots as " Tories," while the patriots took to them- selves the name of " Whigs."
As early as 1776 the leading men had come to the conclusion that there was no hope except in separation and indepen- dence. In May of that year Washington wrote from the head of the army in New York : " A reconciliation with Great Brit- ain is impossible When I took
command of the army, I abhorred the idea
of independence ; but I am now fully satis- fied that nothing else will save us."
It is not the object of this sketch to trace the military acts of the patriot hero, to whose hands the fortunes and liberties of the United States were confided during- the seven years' bloody struggle that ensued until the treaty of 1783, in which England acknowledged the independence of each of the thirteen States, and negotiated with them, jointly, as separate sovereignties. The merits of Washington as a military chief- tain have been considerablv discussed, espe- cially by writers in his own country. Dur- ing the war he was most bitterly assailed for incompetency, and great efforts were made to displace him ; but he never for a moment lost the confidence of either the Congress or the people. December 4, 1783, the great commander took leave of his offi- cers in most affectionate and patriotic terms, and went to Annapolis, Maryland, where the Congress of the States was in session, and to that body, when peace and order prevailed everj'where, resigned his com- mission and retired to Mount Vernon.
It was in 1788 that Washington was called to the chief magistracy of the nation. He received every electoral vote cast in all the colleges of the States voting for the office of President. The 4th of March, 1789, was the time appointed for the Government of the United Stales to begin its operations, but several weeks elapsed before quorums of both the newly constituted houses of the Congress were assembled. The city of New York was the place where the Congress then met. April 16 Washington left his home to enter upon the discharge of his new duties. He set out with a purpose ot traveling privately, and without attracting any oublic attention ; but this was impossi- ble. Everywhere on his way he was met with thronging crowds, eager to see the man whom the}^ regarded as the chief de- fender of their liberties, and everywhere
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
he was hailed with those public manifesta- tions of joy, regard and love which spring spontaneously from the hearts of an affec- tionate and grateful people. His reception in New York was marked by a grandeur and an enthusiasm never before witnessed in that metropolis. The inauguration took place April 30, in the presence of an immense multitude which had assembled to witness the new and imposing ceremony. The oath of office was administered by Robert R. Livingston, Chancellor of the State. When this sacred pledge \vas given, he retired with the other officials into the Senate chamber, where he delivered his inaugural address to both houses of the newly con- stituted Congress in joint assembly.
In the manifold details of his civil ad- ministration, Washington proved himself equal to the requirements of his position. The greater portion of the first session of the first Congress was occupied in passing the necessary statutes for putting the new organization into complete operation. In the discussions brought up in the course of this legislation the nature and character of the new S3'stem came under general review. On no one of them did any decided antago- nism of opinion arise. All held it to be a limited government, clothed onl)^ with spe- cific powers conferred by delegation from the States. There was no change in the name of the legislative department ; it still remained " the Congress of the United States of America." There was no change in the original fiag of the country, and none in the seal, which still remains with the Grecian escutcheon borne by the eagle, with other emblems, under the great and expressive motto, "if Pluribus Unni/i."
The first division of parties arose upon the manner of construing the powers dele- gated, and they were first styled " strict constructionists" and " latitudinarian con- structionists." The former were for con- fining the action of the Government strictly
within its specific and limited sphere, while the others were for enlarging its powers by inference and implication. Hamilton and Jefferson, both members of the first cabinet, were regarded as the chief leaders, respect ivel}', of these rising antagonistic parties which have existed, under different names from that da}' to this. Washington 'vas re- garded as holding a neutral position between them, though, by mature deliberation, he vetoed the first apportionment bill, in 1790, passed b}' the party headed by Hamilton, which was based upon a principle construct- ively leading to centralization or consoli- dation. This was the first exercise of the veto power under the present Ctjnstitution. It created considerable excitement at the time. Another bill was soon passed in pur- suance of Mr. Jefferson's views, which has been adhered to in principle in every ap portionment act passed since.
At the second session of the new Con- gress, Washington announced the gratify^ ing fact of " the accession of North Caro- lina" to the Constitution of 1787, and June I of the same year he announced by special message the like " accession of the State of Rhode Island," with his congratulations on the happy event which " united under the general Goyernment" all the States which were originally confederated.
In 1792, at the second Presidential elec- tion, Washington was desirous to retire ; but he yielded to the general wish of the country, and was again chosen President by the unanimous vote of every electoral college. At the third election, 1796, he was again most urgently entreated to consent to remain in the executive chair. This he positively refused. In September, before the election, he gave to his countrymen his memorable Farewell Address, which in lan- guage, sentiment and patriotism was a fit and crowning glory of his illustrious life. After March 4, 1797, he again retired to Mount Vernon for peace, quiet and repose.
GEORGE WASHINGTON.
«3
His administration forthe two terms had been successful beyond the expectation and hopes of even the most sanguine of his friends. The finances of the country were no longer in an embarrassed condition the public credit was fully restored, life was given to every department of industry, the workings of the new system in allowing Congress to raise revenue from duties on imports proved to be not only harmonious in its federal action, but astonishing in its results upon the commerce and trade of all the States. The exports from the Union increased from §19,000,000 to over $56,000,- 000 per annum, while the imports increased in aliout the same pro|)ortion. Three new members had been added to the Union. The
chief to quit his repose at Mount Vernon and take command of all the United States forces, with the rank of Lieutenant-General, when war was threatened with France in 1798, nothing need here be stated, except to note the fact as an unmistakable testimo- nial of the high regard in which he was still held b}' his countrymen, of all shades of po- litical opinion. He patriotically accepted this trust, but a treaty of peace put a stop to all action under it. He again retired to Mount Vernon, where, after a short and severe illness, he died December 14, 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. The whole country was filled with gloom by this sad intelligence. Men of all parties in poli- tics and creeds in religion, in every State pnjgress of the States in their new career | in the Union, united with Congress in " pay- under their new organization thus far was ing honor to the man, first in war, first in
exccedingl)' encouraging, not only to the friends of liberty within their own limits, but to their sympathizing allies in all climes £nd countries.
peace, and first in the hearts of his country- men."
His remains were deposited m a family vault on the banks of the Potomac at Mount
01 the call again made on this illustrious Vernon, where they still lie entombed.
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PUBS/DENTS OP TUB UNITED STATES.
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■if^^'OHN ADAMS, the second President of the United States, 1797 to 1 801, was born in the present town of Oiiincy, then a portion of Braintree, Massachu- setts, October 30, 1735. His father was a farmer of mod- erate means, a worthy and » industrious man. He was a deacon in the church, and was very desirous of giving his son a collegiate educa- tion, hoping that he would become a minister of the gospel. But, as up to this time, the age of fourteen, he had been only a play-boy in the fields and forests, he had no taste for books, he chose farming. On being set Xo work, however, by his father out in the field, the very first day con- verted the boy into a lover of books.
Accordingly', at the age of sixteen he entered Harvard College, and graduated in 1755, at the age of twenty, highly esteemed for integrity, energy and ability. Thus, having no capital but his education, he started out into the storm}- world at a time of great political excitement, as France and England were then engaged in their great seven-years struggle for the mastery over the New World. The fire of patriotism
seized young Adams, and for a tini<- he studied over the question whether he should take to the law, to politics or ihe arm}'. He wrote a remarkable letter to a friend, making prophecies concerning the future greatness of this country which have since been more than fulfilled. For two years he taught school and studied law, wasting no odd moments, and at the eariy age of twent3'-two years he opened a law office in his native town. His inherited powers of mind and untiring devotion to his profession caused him to rise rapidly in public esteem.
In October, 1764, Mr. Adams married Miss Abigail Smith, daughter of a clergy- man at Weymouth and a lady of rare per- sonal and intellectual endowments, who afterward contributed much to her hus- band's celebrity.
Soon the oppression of the British in America reached its climax. The Boston merchants employed an attorney by the name of James Otis to argue the legality of oppressive lax law before the Superior Court. Adams heard the argument, and afterward wrote to a friend concerning the ability displayed, as follows : " Otis was a flame of fire. With a promptitude of classical allusion, a depth of research, a rapid summary of historical events and dates, a profusion of legal authorities and a
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prophetic glance into futurity, he hurried awa\' all before him. American independence ivas then and there born. Every man of an immensely crowded audience appeared to mc to go away, as T did, ready to take up arms."
Soon Mr. Adams wrote an essay to be read before the literary club of his town, upon the state of affairs, which was so able as to attract public attention. It was pub- lished in American journals, republished in England, and was pronounced by the friends of the colonists there as " one of the very best productions ever seen from North America."
The memorable Stamp Act was now issued, and Adams entered with all the ardor of his soul into political life in order to resist it. He drew up a series of reso- lutions remonstrating against the act, which were adojited at a public meeting of the citizens of Braiiitrcc, and which were sub- sequently adopted, word for word, by more than forty towns in the State. Popular commijtion prevented the landing of the Stamp Act papers, and the English author- ities then chased the courts. The town of Boston therefore appointed Jeremy Grid- ley, James Otis and John Adams to argue a petition before the Governor and council for the re-opening of the courts; and while the two first mentioned attorneys based their argument upon the distress caused to the people by the measure, Adams boldly claimed that the Stamp Act was a violation both of the English Constitution and the charter of the Provinces. It is said that this was the first direct denial of the un- limited right of Parliament over the colo- nies. Soon after this the Stamp Act was repealed.
Directlv Mr. Adams was employed to defend Ansell Nickerson, who had killed an Englishman in the act of impressing him (Nickerson) into the King's service, and his client was acquitted, the court thus estab-
lishing the principle that the infamous royal prerogative of impressment could have no existence in the colonial code. But in 1770 Messrs. Adams and Josiah Quincy defended a party of British soldiers who had been arrested for murder when they had been only obeying Governmental orders ; and when reproached for thus ap- parently deserting the cause of popular liberty, Mr. Adams replied that he would a thousandfold rather live under the domina- tion of the worst of England's kings than under that of a lawless mob. Next, after serving a term as a member of the Colonial Legislature from Boston, Mr. Adams, find- ing his health affected b)' too great labor, retired to his native home at Braintree.
The year 1774 soon arrived, with its fa- mous Boston "Tea Party," the first open act of rebellion. Adams was sent to the Congress at Philadelphia; and when the Attorney-General announced that Great Britain had "determined on her system, and that her power to execute it was irre- sistible," Adams replied : " I know that Great Britain has determined on her sys- tem, and that very determination deter- mines me on mine. You know that I have been constant in my opposition to her measures. The die is now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, with my country, is my unalterable determination." The rumor beginning to prevail at Philadelphia that the Congress had independence in view, Adams foresaw that it was too soon to declare it openly. fis advised every one to remain quiet in that respect ; and as soon as it became ap- parent that he himself was for independ- ence, he was advised to hide himself, which he did.
The next year the great Revolutionary war opened in earnest, and Mrs. Adams, residing near Boston, kept her husband ad- vised by letter of all the events transpiring in her vicinity. The battle of Bunker Hill
rRESIDENTS OF THE UN /TED STATES.
came on. Congress had to do something immediately. The first thing was to choose a commander-in-chief for the — we can't say " army " — the fighting men of the colonies. The New England delegation was almost unanimous in favor of appoint- mg General Ward, then at the head of the Massachusetts forces, but Mr. Adams urged the appointment of George Washington, then almost unknown outside of his own State. He was appointed without oppo- sition. Mr. Adams offered the resolution, which was adopted, annulling all the royal authority in the colonies. Having thus prepared the way, a few weeks later, viz., June 7, 1776, Richard Henrv Lee, of Vir- ginia, who a few months before had declared that the British Government would aban- don its oppressive measures, now offered the memorable resolution, seconded by Adams, " that these United States are, and of right ought to be, free and independent." Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman and Livingston were then appointed a commit- tee to draught a declaration of independ- ence. Mr. Jefferson desired Mr. Adams to draw up the bold document, but the latter persuaded Mr. Jefferson to perform that responsible task. The Declaration drawn up, Mr. Adams became its foremost defender on the floor of Congress. It was signed by all the fifty -five members present, and the next day Mr. Adams wrote to his wife how great a deed was done, and how proud he was of it. Mr. Adams ccjntinued to be the leading man of Congress, and the leading advocate of American inde- pendence. Above all other Americans, he was considered by every one the prin- cipal shining mark for Britisii vengeance. Thus circumstanced, he was appointed to the most dangerous task of crossing the ocean in winter, exposed to capture by the British, who knew of his mission, which was to visit Paris and solicit the co-opera- tion of the French. Besides, to take him-
self away from the country of which he was the most prominent defender, at that critical time, was an act of the greatest self- sacrifice. Sure enough, while crossing the sea, he had two very narrow escapes from capture; and the transit was otherwise a stormy and eventful one. During thf- summer of 1779 he returned home, but was immediately dispatched back to France, to be in readiness there to negotiate terms of peace and commerce with Great Britain as soon as the latter power was ready for such business. But as Dr. Franklin was more popular than heat the court of France, Mr. Adams repaired to Holland, where he was far more successful as a diplomatist.
The treaty of peace between the United States and England was finally signed at Paris, January 21, 1783; and the re-action from so great excitement as Mr. Adams had so long been experiencing threw him into a dangerous fever. Before he fully re- covered he was in London, whence he was dispatched again to Amsterdam to negoti- ate another loan. Compliance with this order undermined his physical constitution for life.
In 17S5 Mr. Adams was appointed envoy to the court of St. James, to meet face to face the very king who had regarded him as an arch traitor ! Accordingly he re- paired thither, where he did actually meet and converse with George III.! After a residence there for about three years, he obtained ])ermission to return to America. While in London he wrote and published an able work, in three volumes, entitled: " A Defense of the American Constitution."
The Articles of Confederation proving inefficient, as Adams had prophesied, a carefully draughted Constitution was adopted in 1789, when George Washington was elected President of the new nation, and Adams Vice-President. Congress met for a time in New York, but was removed to Philadelphia for ten years, until suitable
yOHN^ ADAMS.
19
buildings should be erected at the new capital in the District of Columbia. Mr. Adams then moved his family to Phila- delphia. Toward the close of his term of office the French Revolution culminated, when Adams and Washing-ton rather sympathized with England, and Jefferson with France. The Presidential election of 1796 resulted in giving Mr. Adams tlie first place by a small majority, and Mr. Jeffer- son the second place.
Mr. Adams's administration was consci- entious, patriotic and able. The period was a turbulent one, and even an archangel could not have reconciled the hostile par- ties. Partisanism with reference to Eng- land and France was bitter, and for four years Mr. Adams struggled through almost a constant tempest of a'^saults. In fact, he was not truly a popular man, and his cha- grin at not receiving a re-election was so great that he did not even remain at Phila- delphia to witness the inauguration of Mr. Jefferson, his successor. The friendly intimacy between these two men was interrupted for about thirteen years of their life. Adams finally made the first advances toward a restoration of their mutual friend- ship, which were gratefully accepted by Jefferson.
Mr. Adams was glad of his opportunity to retire to private lile, where he could rest his mind and enjoy the comforts of home. By a thousand bitter experiences he found the path of public duty a thorny one. For twenty-six years his service of the public was as arduous, self-sacrificing and devoted as ever fell to the lot of man. In one im- portant sense he was as much the " Father of his Country " as was Washington in another sense. Dunng these long years of anxiety and toil, in which he was laying. broad and deep, the foundations of the
greatest nation the sun ever shone upon, he received from his impoverished country a meager support. The only privilege he carried with him into his retirement was that of franking his letters.
Although taking no active part in public affairs, both himself and his son, John Quincy, nobly supported the policy of Mr. Jefferson in resisting the encroachments of England, who persisted in searching American ships on the high seas and dragging from them any sailors that might be designated by any pert lieutenant as British subjects. Even for this noble sup- port Mr. Adams was maligned by thou- sands of bitter enemies ! On this occasion, for the first time since his retirement, he broke silence and drew up a very able paper, exposing the atrocity of the British pretensions.
Mr. Adams outlived nearly all his family. Though his physical frame began to give way many years before his death, his mental powers retained their strength and vigor to the last. In his ninetieth year he was gladdened by the popular elevation of his son to the Presidential office, the highest in the gift of the people. A few months more passed away and the 4th of July, 1826, arrived. The people, unaware of the near approach of the end of two great lives — that of Adams and Jefferson — were making unusual preparations for a national holiday. Mr. Adams lay upon his couch, listening to the ringing of bells, the waftures of martial music and the roar of cannon, with silent emotion. Only four days before, he had given for a public toast, " Independence forever." About two o'clock in the after- noon he said, "And Jefferson still survives." But he was mistaken by an hour or so: and in a few minutes he had breathed his last.
PRESIDEIVTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
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HOMAS JEFFER- son, the third Presi- dent of the United States, 1801-9, ^v^s born April 2, 1743, the eldest child of his parents, Peter and Jane (Randolph) Jef- ferson, near Charlottes- ville, Y\lbemarle County, Virginia, upon the slopes of the Blue Ridge. When he -was fourteen years of age, his father died, leav- ing a widow and eight children. She was a beau- tiful and accomplished lady, a good letter-writer, with a fund of humor, and an admirable housekeeper. His parents belonged totiie Church of England, and are said to be of Welch origin. But little is known of them, however.
Thomas was naturally of a serious turn of mind, apt to learn, and a favorite at school, his choice studies being mathemat- ics and the classics. At the age of seven- teen he entered William and Mary College, in an advanced class, and lived in rather an expensive style, consequently being much caressed by gay society. That he was not ruined, is proof of his stamina of character. But during his second year he discarded
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society, his horses and even his favorite violin, and devoted thenceforward fifteen hours a day to hard study, becoming ex- traordinarily proficient in Latin and Greek authors.
On leaving college, before he was twenty- one, he commenced the study of law, and pursued it diligently until he was well qualified for practice, upon which he entered in 1767. By this time he was also versed in French, Spanish, Italian and An- glo-Saxon, and in the criticism of the fine arts. Being very polite and polished in his manners, he won the friendship of all whom he met. Though able with his pen, he was not fluent in public speech.
In 1769 he was chosen a member of the Virginia Legislature, and was the largest slave-holding member of that body. He introduced a bill empowering slave-holders to manumit their slaves, but it was rejected by an overwhelming vote.
In 1770 Mr. Jefferson met with a great loss ; his house at Shadwell was burned, and his valuable library of 2,000 volumes was consumed. But he was wealthy enough to replace the most of it, as from his 5,000 acres tilled by slaves and his practice at the bar his income amounted to about $5,000 a year.
In 1772 he married Mrs. Martha Skelton, a beautiful, wealthy and accomplished
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young widow, who owned 40,000 acres of land and 130 slaves; yet he labored assidu- ously for the abolition of slavery. For his new home he selected a majestic rise of land upon his large estate at Shadwell, called Monticello, whereon he erected a mansion of modest 3'ct elegant architecture. Here he lived in luxury, indulging his taste in magnificent, high-blooded horses.
At this period the British Government gradually became more insolent and op- pressive toward the American colonies, and Mr. Jefferson was ever one of the most foremost to resist its encroachments. From time to time he drew up resolutions of re- monstrance, which were finally adopted, thus pr(jving his ability as a statesman and as a leader. By thevear 1774 he became quite busv, both with voice and pen, in dc- fendine: the riji^ht of the colonies to defend themselves. His jjamphlet entitled : " A Summary View of the Rights of British America," attracted much attention in Eng- land. The following year he, in company with George Washington, served as an ex- ecutive committee in measures to defend by arms the State of V^irginia. As a Mem- ber of the Congress, he was not a speech- maker, yet in conversation and upon committees he was so frank and decisive that he always made a favorable impression. But as late as the autumn of 1775 he re- mained in hopes of reconciliation with the parent country.
At length, however, tlie hour arrived for draughting the " Declaration of Indepen- dence," and this responsible task was de- volved upon Jefferson. Franklin, and Adams suggested a few verbal corrections befure it was submitted to Congress, which was June 28, 1776, only six days before it was adopted. During the three days of the fiery ordeal of criticism through which it passed in Congress, Mr. Jeflerson opened not his lips. John Adams was the main champion of the Declaration on the floor
of Congress. The signing of this document was one of the most solemn and momentous occasions ever attended to by man. Prayer and silence reigned throughout the hall, and each signer realized that if American independence was not finally sustained by arms he was doomed to the scaffold.
After the colonies became independent States, Jefferson resigned for a time his seat in Congress in order to aid in organizing the government of Virginia, of which State he was chosen Governor in 1779, when he was thirty-six years of age. At this time the British had possession of Georgia and were invading South Carolina, and at one time a British otificer, Tarleton, sent a secret expedition to Monticello to capture the Governor. Five minutes after Mr. Jefferson escaped with his family, his man- si(5n was in possession of the enemy ! The British troops also destroyed his valuable plantation on the James River. " Had they carried off the slaves," said Jefferson, with characteristic magnanimity, " to give them freedom, they would have done right."
The year 1781 was a gloomy one for the Viisrinia Governor. While confined to his secluded home in the forest by a sick and dving wife, a party arose against him throughout the State, severely criticising his course as Governor. Being very sensi- tive to reproach, this touched him to the quick, and the heap of troubles then sur- rounding him nearly crushed him. He re- solved, in despair, to retire from public life for the rest of his days. For weeks Mr. Jefferson sat lovingly, but with a crushed heart, at the bedside of his sick wife, during which time unfeeling letters were sent to him, accusing him of weakness and unfaith- fulness to duty. All this, after he had lost so much property and at the same time done so much for his country! After her death he actually fainted away, and re- mained so long insensible that it was feared he never would recover ! Several weeks
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
passed before he could fully recover his equilibrium. He was never married a second time.
In the spring of 1782 the people of Eng- land compelled their king to make to the Americans overtures of peace, and in No- vember following, Mr. Jefferson was reap- pointed by Congress, unanimously and without a single adverse remark, minister plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty.
In March, 1784, Mr. Jefferson was ap- pointed on a committee to draught a plan for the government of the Northwestern Territory. His slavery -prohibition clause in that plan was stricken out by the pro- slavery majority of the committee; but amid all the controversies and wrangles of poli- ticians, he made it a rule never to contra- dict anybody or engage in any discussion as a debater.
In company with Mr. Adams and Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jefferson was appointed in May, 1784, to act as minister plenipotentiary in the negotiation of treaties of commerce with foreign nations. Accordingly, he went to Paris and satisfactorily accomplished his mission. The suavity and high bearing of his manner made all the French his friends; and even Mrs. Adams at one time wrote to her sister that he was " the chosen of the earth." But all the honors tiiat he received, both at home and abroad, seemed to make no change in the simplicity of his republican tastes. On his return to America, he found two parties respecting the foreign commercial policy, Mr. Adams sympathizing with that in favor of England and himself favoring France.
On the inauguration of General Wash- ington as President, Mr. Jefferson was chosen by him for the office of Secretary of State. At this time the rising storm of the French Revolution became visible, and Washington watched it with great anxiety. His cabinet was divided in their views of constitutional government as well as re-
garding the issues in France. General Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, was the leader of the so-called Federal party, while Mr. Jefferson was the leader of the Republican party. At the same time there was a strong monarchical party in this country, with which Mr. Adams sympa- thized. Some important financial measures, which were proposed by Hamilton and finally adopted by the cabinet and approved by Washington, were opposed by Mr. Jefferson ; and his enemies theji began to reproach him with holding office under an administration whose views he opposed. The President poured oil on the troubled waters. On his re-election to the Presi- dency he desired Mr. Jefferson to remain in the cabinet, but the latter sent in his resignation at two different times, probably because he was dissatisfied with some of the measures of the Government. His final one was not received until January i, 1794, when General Washington parted from him with great regret.
Jefferson then retired to his quiet home at Monticello, to enjoy a good rest, not even reading the newspapers lest the political gossip should disquiet him. On the Presi- dent's again calling him back to the office of Secretary of State, he replied that no circumstances would ever again tempt him to engage in anything public ! But, while all Europe was ablaze with war, and France in the tiiroes of a bloody revolution and the principal theater of the conflict, a new Presidential election in this country came on. John Adams was the Federal candi- date and Mr. Jefferson became the Republi- can candidate. The result of the election was the promotion of the latter to the Vice- Presidency, while the former was chosen President. In this contest Mr. Jefferson really did not desire to have either office, he was " so weary " of party strife. He loved the retirement of home more than any other place on the earth.
THOMAS yEFFEliSON.
25
But for four long years his Vice-Presi- dency passed joylessly away, while the partisan strife between Federalist and Re- publican was ever growing hotter. The former party split and the result of the fourtri general election was the elevation of Mr. Jefferson to the Presidency ! with Aaron Burr as Vice-President. These men being at the head of a growing party, their election was hailed everywhere with joy. On the other hand, many of the Federalists turned [)ale, as they believed what a portion of the pulpit and the press had been preach- ing— that Jefferson was a " scoffing atheist," a "Jacobin," the " incarnation of all evil," " breathing threatening and slaughter ! "
Mr. Jefferson's inaugural address con- tained nothing but the noblest sentiments, expressed in fine language, and his personal behavior afterward exhibited the e.\treme of American, democratic simplicity. His disgust of European court etiquette grew upon him with age. He believed that General Washington was somewhat dis- trustful of the ultimate success of a popular Government, and that, imbued with a little admiration of the forms of a monarchical Goverimient, he had instituted levees, birth- days, pompous meetings with Congress, etc. Jefferson was always polite, even to slaves everywhere he met them, and carried in his countenance the indications of an ac- commodating disposition.
The political principles of the Jeffersoni- an party now swept the country, and Mr. Jefferson himself swayed an influence which was never exceeded even by Washington. Under his administration, in 1803, the Lou- isiana purchase was made, for $15,000,000, the " Louisiana Territory " purchased com- prising all the land west of the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean.
The year 1804 witnessed another severe loss in his family. His highly accomplished and most beloved daughter Maria sickened and died, causing as great grief in the
stricken parent as it was possible for him to survive with any degree of sanity.
The same year he was re-elected to the Presidency, with George Clinton as Vice- President. During his second term our relations with England became more com- plicated, and (jii June 22, 1807, near Hamp- ton Roads, the United States frigate Chesapeake was fired upon by the Brit- ish man-of-war Leopard, and was made to surrender. Three men were killed and ten wounded. Jefferson demanded repara- tion. England grew insolent, ft became evident that war was determined upon by the latter power. More than 1,200 Ameri- cans were forced into the British service upon the high seas. Before any satisfactory solution was reached, Mr. Jefferson's Presidential term closed. Amid all these public excitements he thought constantly of the welfare of his family, and longed for the time when he could return home to remain. There, at Monticello, his sub- sequent life was very similar to that of Washington at Mt. Vernon. His hospi- tality toward his numerous friends, indul- gence of his slaves, and misfortunes to his property, etc., finally involved him in debt. For years his home resembled a fashion- able watering-place. During the summer, thirty-seven house servants were required! ft was presided over by his daughter, Mrs. Randolph.
Mr. Jefferson did much for the establish- ment of the University at Charlottesville, making it unsectarian, in keeping with the spirit of American institutions, but poverty and the feebleness of old age prevented him from doing what he would. He even went so far as to petition the Legislature for permission to dispose of some of his possessions by lottery, in order to raise the necessary funds for home expenses. It was granted ; but before the plan was carried out, Mr. Jefferson died, July 4 12:50 P. M.
1826, at
26
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:}^'^AMES MADISON, the ''2: fourth President of the ^|s*» United States, 1809-'! 7, was born at Port Con- way, Prince George Count}', Virginia, March 16, 1 75 1. His father, Colonel James Madison, was a wealthy planter, residing upon a very fine estate called " Montpelier," only twenty-five miles from the home of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello. The closest personal and political at- tachment existed between these illustrious men from their early youth until death.
James was the eldest of a family of seven children, four sons and three daughters, all of whom attained maturity. His early edu- cation was conducted mostly at home, under a private tutor. Being natural!}' in- tellectual in liis tastes, he consecrated him- self with unusual vigor to study. At a very early age he made considerable proficiency in the Greek, Latin, French and Spanish languages. In 1769 he entered Princeton College, New Jersey, of which the illus- trious Dr. Weatherspoon was then Presi- dent. He graduated in 1771, with a char-
acter of the utmost purity, and a mind highly disciplined and stored with all the learning which embellished and gave effi- ciency to his subsequent career. After graduating he pursued a course of reading for several months, under the guidance of President Weatherspoon, and in 1772 re- tuined to Virginia, where he continued in incessant study for two years, nominally directed to the law, but really including extended researches in theology, philoso- phy and general literature.
The Church of England was the estab- lished church in Virginia, invested with all the prerogatives and immunities which it enjoyed in the fatherland, and other de- nominations labored under serious disabili- ties, the enforcement of which was rightly or wrongly characterized by them as per- secution. Madison took a prominent stand in behalf of the removal of all disabilities, repeatedly appeared in the court of his own county to defend the Baptist nonconform- ists, and was elected from Orange County to the Virginia Convention in the spring of 1766, when he signalized the beginning of his public career by procuring the passage of an amendment to the Declaration of Rights as prepared by George Mason, sub- stituting for " toleration" a more emphatic assertion of religious liberty.
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In 1776 he was elected a member of the Virginia Convention to frame the Constitu- tion of the State. Like Jefferson, he took but little part in the public debates. His main strength lay in his conversational in- fluence and in his pen. In November, 1777, he was chosen a member of the Council of State, and in March, 1780, took his seat in the Continental Congress, where he first gained prominence through his energetic opposition to the issue of paper money by the States. He continued in Congress three vears, one of its most active and influential members.
In 1784 Mr. Madison was elected a mem- ber of the Virginia Legislature. He ren- dered important service by promoting and participating in that revision of the statutes which cITcctually abolished the remnants of the feudal system subsistent up to that time in the form of entails, primogeniture, and State support given the Anglican Church ; and his " Memorial and Remon- strance" against a general assessment for the support of religion is one of the ablest papers which emanated from his pen. It settled the question of the entire separation of church and State in Virginia.
Mr. Jefferson says of him, in allusion to the study and experience through which he had already passed :
" Trained in these successive schools, he acquired a habit of self-possession which placed at ready command the rich resources of his luminous and discriminating mind and of his extensive information, and rendered him the first of every assembly of which he afterward became a member. Never wan- dering from his subject into vain declama- tion, but pursuing it closely in language pure, classical and copious, soothing al- ways the feelings of his adversaries by civili- ties and softness of expression, he rose to the eminent station which he held in the great National Convention of 1787; and in that of Virginia, which followed, he sustained the
new Constitution in all its parts, bearing oS the palm against the logic of George Mason and the fervid declamation of Patrick Henry. With these consummate powers were united a pure and spotless virtue which no calumny has ever attempted to sullv- Of the power and polish of his pen, and of the wisdom of his administration in the highest office of the nation, I need say nothing. They have spoken, and will for- ever speak, for themselves."
In January, 1786, Mr. Madison took the initiative in proposing a meeting of State Commissioners to devise measures for more satisfactory commercial relations between the States. A meeting was held at An- napolis to discuss this subject, and but five States were represented. The convention issued another call, drawn up by Mr. Madi- son, urging all the States to send their dele- gates to Philadelphia, in May, 1787, to draught a Constitution for the United States. The delegates met at the time ap- pointed, every State except Rhode Island being represented. George Washington was chosen president of the convention, and the present Constitution of the United States was then and there formed. There was no mind and no pen more active in framine this imm<5rtal document than the mind and pen of James Madison. He was, perhaps, its ablest advocate in the pages of the Federalist.
Mr. Madison was a member of the first four Congresses, 1789-97, in which he main- tained a moderate opposition to Hamilton's financial policy. He declined the mission to France and the Secretaryship of State, and, gradually identifying himself with the Republican party, became from 1792 its avowed leader. In 1796 he was its choice for the Presidency as successor to Wash- ington. Mr. Jefferson wrote: "There is not another person in the United States with whom, being placed at the helm of our affairs, my mind would be so completely at
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PRESIDENTS OP THE UNITED STATES.
rest for the fortune of our political bark." But Mr. Madison declined to be a candi- date. His term in Congress had expired, and he returned from New York to his beautiful retreat at Montpelier.
In 1/94 Mr. Madison married a young widow of remarkable powers of fascination — Mrs. Todd. Her maiden name was Doro- thy Paine. She was born in 1767, in Vir- ginia, of Quaker parents, and had been educated in the strictest rules of that sect. When but eighteen years of age she married a young lawyer and moved to Philadelphia, where she was introduced to brilliant scenes of fashionable life. She speedily laid aside the dress and address of the Quakeress, and became one of the most fascinating ladies of the republican court. In New York, alter the death of her husband, she was the belle of the season and was surrounded with admirers. Mr. Madison won the prize. She proved an invaluable helpmate. In Washington she was the life of society. If there was any diffident, timid young girl just making her appearance, she found in Mrs. Madison an encouraging triend.
During the stormy administration of John Adams Madison remained in private life, but was the author of the celebrated " Reso- lutions of 1798," adopted by the Virginia Legislature, in condemnation of the Alien and Sedition laws, as well as of the " report" in which he defended those resolutions, which is, by many, considered his ablest State paper.
The storm passed away; the Alien and Sedition laws were repealed, John Adams lost his re-election, and in 1801 Thomas Jef- ferson was chosen President. The great re- action in public sentiment which seated Jefferson in the presidential chair was large- ly owing to the writings of Madison, who was consequently well entitled to the post of Secretary of State. With great abilit}' he discharged the duties of this responsible
office during the eight years of Mr. Jefier. son's administration.
As Mr. Jefferson was a widower, and neither of his daughters could be often with him, Mrs. Madison usually presided over the festivities of the White House; and as her husband succeeded Mr. Jefferson, hold- ing his office for two terms, this remarkable woman was the mistress of the presidential mansion for sixteen years.
Mr. Madison being entirely engrossed by the cares of his office, all the duties of so- cial life devolved upon his accomplished wife. Never were such responsibilities more ably discharged. The most bitter foes of her husband and of the administra- tion were received with the frankly prof- fered hand and the cordial smile of wel- come; and the influence of this gentle woman in allaying the bitterness of party rancor became a great and salutary power in the nation.
As the term of Mr. Jefferson's Presidency drew near its close, party strife was roused to the utmost to elect his successor. It was a death-grapple between the two great parties, the Federal and Republican. Mr. Madison was chosen President by an elec- toral vote of 122 to 53, and was inaugurated March 4, 1809, at a critical period, when the relations of the United States with Great Britain were becoming embittered, and his first term was passed in diplomatic quarrels, aggravated by the act of non-intercourse of May, 1810, and finally resulting in a decla- ration of war.
On the 1 8th of June, 181 2, President Madison gave his approval to an act of Congress declaring war against Great Brit- ain. Notwithstanding the bitter hostility of the Federal party to the war, the country in general approved ; and in the autumn Madison was re-elected to the Presidency by 128 electoral votes to 89 in favor of George Clinton.
March 4, 1817, Madison yielded the Presi-
yAMES MADISON.
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dency to his Secretary of State and inti- mate friend, James Monroe, and retired to his ancestral estate at Montpelier, where he passed the evening o{ his days surrounded by attached friends and enjoying the merited respect of the wliole nation. He took pleasure in promoting agriculture, as president of the county society, and in watching the dcvcUjpment of the University of Virginia, of which he was long rector and visitor. In extreme old age he sat in 1829 as a member of the convention called to re- form the Virginia Constitution, where his appearance was hailed with the most gen- uine interest and satisfaction, though he was too infirm io participate in the active W(jrk of revision. Small in stature, slender and delicate in form, with a countenance full of intelligence, and expressive alike of mildness anil dignity, he attracted the atten- tion of all who attended the convention, and was treated with the utmost deference. He seldom addressed the assembly, though he always appeared self-possessed, and watched with unflagging interest the prog- ress of every measure. Tiiough the con- vention sat sixteen weeks, he spoke only twice ; but when he did speak, the whole house paused to listen. His voice was feeble though his enunciation was very dis- tinct. One of the reporters, Mr. Stansbury, relates the following anecdote of Mr. Madi- son's last speech:
" The next day, as there was a great call for it, and the report had not been returned for publication, I sent my son with a re- spectful note, requesting the manuscript. My son was a lad of sixteen, whom I had taken with me to act as amanuensis. On delivering my note, he was received with the utmost politeness, and requested to come up into Mr. Madison's room and wait while his eye ran over the paper, as com- pany had prevented his attending to it. He did so, and Mr. Madison sat down to correct the report. The lad stood near him so that
his eye fell on the paper. Coming to a certain sentence in the speech, Mr. Madison erased a word and substituted another ; but hesitated, and not feeling satisfied with the second word, drew his pen through it also. My son was young, ignorant of the world, and unconscious of the solecism of which he was about t(3 be guilty, when, in all simplic- ity, he suggested a word. Probably no other person then living would have taken such a liberty. But the sage, instead of regarding such an intrusion with a frown, raised his eyes to the boy's face with a pleased surprise, and said, ' Thank you, sir ; it is the very word,' and immediately in- serted it. I saw him the next day, and he mentioned the circumstance, with a compli- ment on the young critic."
Mr. Madison died at Montpelier, June 28, 1836, at the advanced age of eighty-five. While not possessing the highest order of talent, and deficient in oratorical powers, he was pre-eminently a statesman, of a well, balanced mind. His attainments were solid, his knowledge copious, his judgment gener- ally sound, his powers of analysis and logi- cal statement rarely surpassed, his language and literary style correct and polished, his conversation witty, his temperament san- guine and trusfful, his integrity unques- tioned, his manners simple, courteous and winning. By these rare qualities he con- ciliated the esteem not only of friends, but of political opponents, in a greater degree than any American statesman in the present century.
Mrs. Madison survived her husband thir- teen years, and died July 12, 1849, in the eighty-second year of her age. She was one of the most remarkable women our coun- try has produced. Even now she is ad- miringly remembered in Washington as " Dolly Madison," and it is fitting that her memory should descend to posterity in company with thatof the companion of her life.
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'AMES MONROE, the fifth President of the United States, 1817-25, was born in Westmoreland County Virginia, April 28, 1758. He was a son of Spence Monroe, and a descendant of a Scottish cavalier fam- ily. Like all his predeces- sors thus far in the Presi- dential chair, he enjoyed all the advantages of educa- tion which the country could then afford. He was early sent to a fine classical school, and at the age of six- teen entered William and Mary College.. In 1776, when he had been in college but two years, the Declaration of Independence was adopted, and our feeble militia, with- out arms, amunition or clothing, were strug- gling against the trained armies of England. James Monroe left college, hastened to General Washington's headquarters at New York and enrolled himself as a cadet in the army.
At Trenton Lieutenant Monroe so dis- tinguished himself, receiving a wound in his shoulder, that he was promoted to a Cap- taincy. Upon recovering from his wound, he was invited to act as aide to Lord Ster- ling, and in that capacity he took an active part in the battles of Brandywine, Ger- mantown and Monmouth. At Germantown
he stood by the side of Lafayette when the French Marquis received his wound. Gen- eral Washingtcjn, who had formed a high idea of young Monroe's ability, sent him to Virginia to raise a new regiment, of which he was to be Colonel; but so exhausted was Virginia at that time that the effort proved unsuccessful. He, however, received his commission.
Finding no opportunity to enter the army as a commissioned officer, he returned to his original plan of studying law, and entered the office of Thomas Jefferson, who was then Governor of Virginia. He developed a very noble character, frank, manly and sincere. Mr. Jefferson said of him:
"James Monroe is so perfectly honest that if his soul were turned inside out there would not be found a spot on it."
In 1782 he was elected to the Assembly of Virginia, and was also appointed a mem- ber of the Executive Council. The next year he was chosen delegate to the Conti- nental Congress for a term of three years. He was present at Annapolis when Wash- ington surrendered his commission of Com- mander-in-chief.
With Washington, Jefferson and Madison he felt deeply the inefficiency of the old Articles of Confederation, and urged the formation of a new Constitution, which should invest the Central Government with something like national power. Influenced by these views, he introduced a resolution
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that Congress should ' be empowered to regulate trade, and to lay an impost duty of five per cent. The resolution was refer- red to a committee of which he was chair- man. The report and the discussion which rose upon it led to the convention of five States at Annapolis, and the consequent general convention at Philadelphia, which, in 1787, drafted the Constitution of the United States.
At this time there was a controversy be- tween New York and Massachusetts in reference to their boundaries. The his^h esteem in which Colonel Monroe was held is indicated by the fact that he was ap- pointed one of the judges to decide the controvers}-. While in New York attend- ing Congress, he married Miss Kortright, a young lady distinguished alike for her beauty and accomplishments. For nearly fifty years this happy union remained un- broken. In London and in Paris, as in her own country, Mrs. Monroe won admiration and affection by the loveliness of her per- son, the brilliancy of her intellect, and the amiability of her character.
Returning to Virginia, Colonel Monroe commenced the practice of law at Freder- icksburg. He was very soon elected to a seat in the State Legislature, and the next year he was chosen a member of the Vir- ginia convention which was assembled to decide upon the acceptance or rejection of the Constitution which had been drawn up at Philadelj)hia, and was now submitted to the several States. Deeply as he felt the imperfections of the old Confederacy, he was opposed to the new Constitution, thinking, with many others of the Republi- can party, that it gave too much power to the Central G(jvernment, and not enough to the individual States.
In 1789 he became a member of the United States Senate, which office he held acceptably to his constituents, and with honor to himself for four years.
Having opposed the Constitution as not leaving enough power with the States, he, of course, became more and more identi- fied with the Republican party. Thus he found himself in cordial co-operation with Jefferson and Madison. The great Repub- lican party became the dominant power which ruled the land.
George Washington was then President. England had espoused the cause of the Bourbons against the principles of the French Revolution. President Washing- ton issued a proclamation of neutrality be- tween these contending powers. France had helped us in the struggle for our lib- erties. All the despotisms of Europe were now combined to prevent the French from escaping from tyranny a thousandfold worse than that which we had endured. Colonel Monroe, more magnanimous than prudent, was anxious that we should help our old allies in their extremity. He vio- lently opposed the President's procla- mation as ungrateful and wanting in magnanimity.
Washington, who could appreciate such a character, developed his calm, serene, almost divine greatness by appointing that very James Monroe, who was denouncing the policy of the Government, as the Minis- ter of that Government to the republic of France. He was directed by Washington to express to the French people our warm- est sympathy, communicating to them cor- responding resolves approved by the Pres- ident, and adopted by both houses of Congress.
Mr. Monroe was welcomed by the Na- tional Convention in France with the most enthusiastic demonstrations of respect and affection. He was publicly introduced to that body, and received the embrace of the President, Merlin de Douay, after having been addressed in a speech glowing with congratulations, and with expressions of desire that harmony might ever exist be
36
P/IES/DENTS OF TUB UNITED STATES.
tvveeu the two nations. The flags of the two republics were intertwined in the hall of tiie convention. Mr. Monroe presented the American colors, and received those of France in return. The course which he pursued in Paris was so annoying to Eng- land and to the friends of England in this country that, near the close of Wash- ington's administration, Mr. Monroe, was recalled.
After his return Colonel Monroe wrote a bocjk of 400 pages, entitled " A View of the Conduct of the Executive in Foreign Af- fairs." In this work he very ably advo- cated his side of the question; but, with the magnanimit^• of the man, he recorded a warm tribute to the patriotism, ability and spotless integrity of John Jay, between wiiom and himself there was intense antag-- onism ; and in subsequent years he ex- pressed in warmest terms his perfect veneration for the character of Georgre Washington.
Shortly after his return to this countrv Colonel Monroe was elected Governor of Virginia, and held that office for three years, the period limited by the Constitu- tion. In 1802 he was an Envoy to France, and to Sjjain in 1805, and was Minister to England in 1803. In 1806 he returned to his quiet home in Virginia, and with his wife and chiklrenand an ample competence fioiu his paternal estate, enjoyed a few years of tlomestic repose.
In 1809 Mr. Jefferson's second term of office expired, and manv of the Republican party were anxious to nominate James Monroe as his successor. The majority were in favor of Mr. Madison. Mr. Mon- roe withdrew his name and was soon after chosen a second time Governor of Virginia. He soon resigned that office to accept the position of Secretary of State, offered him by President Madison. The correspond- ence which he then carried on with the British Government demonstrated that
there was no hope of any peaceful adjust- ment of our difficulties with the cabinet of St. James. War was consequently declared in June, 1812. Immediately after the sack of Washington the Secretary^ of War re- signed, and Mr. Monroe, at the earnest request of Mr. Madison, assumed the ad- ditional duties of the War Department, without resigning his position as Secretary of State. It has been confidently stated, that, had Mr. Monroe's energies been in the War Department a few months earlier, the disaster at Washington would not have occurred.
The duties now devolving upon Mr. Mon- roe were extremely arduous. Ten thou- sand men, picked from the veteran armies of England, were sent with a powerful fleet to New Orleans to acquire possession of the mouths of the Mississippi. Our finan- ces were in the most deplorable condition. The treasury was exhausted and our credit gone. And 3'et it was necessary to make the most rigorous preparations to meet the foe. In this crisis James Monroe, the Sec- retary of W^ar, with virtue unsurpassed in Greek or Roman story, stepped forward and pledged his own individual credit as subsidiary to that of the nation, and thus succeeded in placing the city of New Or- leans in such a posture of defense, that it was enabled successfully to repel the in- vader.
Mr. Monroe was truly the armor-bearer of President Madison, and the most efficient business man in his cabinet. His energy^ in the double capacity of Secretary, both of State and War, pervaded all the depart- ments of the country. He proposed to increase the army to 100,000 men, a meas- ure which he deemed absolutel}- necessary to save us from ignominious defeat, but which, at the same time, he knew would render his name so unpopular as to preclude the possibility of his being a successful can- didate for the Presidency.
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The happy result of the conference at Ghent in securing peace rendered the in- crease of the army unnecessary; but it is not too much to say that James Monroe placed in the hands of Andrew Jackson the weapon with which to beat off the foe at New Orleans. Upon the return of peace Mr. Monroe resigned the department of war, devoting himself entirely to the duties of Secretary of State. These he continued to discharge until the close of President Madison's administration, with zeal which was never abated, and with an ardor of self-devotion which made him almost for- getful of the claims of fortune, health or life.
Mr. Madison's second term expired in March, 1817, and Mr. Monroe succeeded to the Presidency. He was a candidate of the Republican party, now taking the name of the Democratic Republican. In 1821 he was re-elected, with scarcely any opposition. Out of 232 electoral votes, he received 231. The slavery question, which subsequently assumed such formidable dimensions, now began to make its appearance. The State of Missouri, which had been carved out of that immense territory which we had pur- chased of F"rance, applied for admission to the Union, with a slavery Constitution. There were not a few who foresaw the evils impending. After the debate of a week it was decided that Missouri could not be admitted into the Union with slav- ery. This important question was at length settled by a compromise proposed by Henry Clay.
The famous "Monroe Doctrine," of which so much has been said, originated in this way: In 1823 it was rumored that the Holy Alliance was about to interfere to prevent the establishment of Republican liberty in the European colonies of South America. President Monroe wrote to his old friend Thomas Jefferson for advice in the emergency. In his reply under date of
October 24, Mr. Jefferson writes upon the supposition that our attempt to resist this European movement might lead to war:
" Its object is to introduce and establish the American system of keeping out of our land all foreign powers; of never permitting those of Europe to intermeddle with the affairs of our nation. It is to maintain our own principle, not to depart from it."
December 2, 1823, President Monroe sent a message to Congress, declaring it to be the policy of this Government not to entangle ourselves with the broils of Eu- rope, and not to allow Europe to interfere with the affairs of nations on the American continent; and the doctrine was announced, that any attempt on the part of the Euro- pean powers " to e.vtend their system to any portion of this hemisphere would be regarded by the United States as danger- ous to our peace and safety."
March 4, 1825, Mr. Monroe surrendered the presidential chair to his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, and retired, with the universal respect of the nation, to his private residence at Oak Hill, Lou- doun County, Virginia. His time had been so entirely consecrated to his country, that he had neglected his pecuniary interests, and was deeply involved in debt. The welfare of his country had ever been up- permost in his mind.
For many years Mrs. Monroe was in such feeble health that she rarely appeared in public. In 1830 Mr. Monroe took up his residence with his son-in-law in New York, where he died on the 4th of July, 1831. The citizens of New York conducted his obsequies with pageants more imposing than had ever been witnessed there before. Our country will ever cherish his mem- ory with pride, gratefully enrolling his name in the list of its benefactors, pronounc- ing him the worthy successor of the illus- trious men who had preceded him in the presidential chair.
3S
PRESIDENTS OF THE UN/TED STATES.
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'OHN QUINCY ADAMS,
the sixth President of the United States, i825-'9, was born in the rural home of his honored >>° father, John Adams, in Q u i n c y , Massachusetts, July II, 1767. His mother, a woman of exalted worth, watched over his childhood during the almost constant absence of his father. He commenced his education at the village school, giving at an early period indica- tions of superior mental en- dowments.
When eleven years (jf age he sailed with his father for Europe, where the latter was associated with Franklin and Lee as Minister Plenipotentiary. The intelligence of John Quincy attracted the attention of these men and received from them flattering marks of attention. Mr. Adams had scarcely returned to this country in 1779 ere he was again sent abroad, and John Quincy again accom- panied him. On this voyage he commenced a diary, which practice he continued, with but few interruptions, until his death- He journeyed with his father from Ferrol, in Spain, to Paris. Here he applied himself for six months to study; then accompanied
his father to Holland, where he entered, first a school in Amsterdam, and then the University of Leyden. In 1781, when only fourteen years of age, he was selected by Mr. Dana, our Minister to the Russian court, as his private secretary. In this school of incessant labor he spent fourteen months, and then returned alone to Holland through Sweden, Denmark, Hamburg and Bremen. Again he resumed his studies under a private tutor, at The Hague.
In the spring of 1782 he accompanied his father to Paris, forming acquaintance with the most distinguished men on the Conti- nent. After a short visit to England, he re- turned to Paris and studied until May, 1785, when he returned to America, leav- ing his father an embassador at the court of St. James. In 1786 he entered the jun- ior class in Harvard University, and grad- uated with the second honor of his class. The oration he delivered on this occasion, the " Importance of Public Faith to the Well-being of a Community," was pub- lished— an event vei»y rare in this or any other land.
Upon leaving college at the age of twenty he studied law three years with the Hon. Theophilus Parsons in Newbur3'port. In 1790 he opened a law ofifice in Boston. The profession was crowded with able men, and the fees were small. The first year he had
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no clients, but not a moment was lost. The second year passed away, still no clients, and still he was dependent upon his parents for support. An.xiously he awaited the third year. The reward now came. Cli- ents began to enter his office, and before the end of the year he was so crowded with business that all solicitude respecting a support was at an end.
When Great Britain commenced war against France, in 1793, Mr. Adams wrote some articles, urging entire neutrality on the part of the United States. The view was not a popular one. Many felt that as France had helped us, we were bound to ht'p France. But President Washington coincided with Mr. Adams, and issued his proclamation of neutrality. His writings at this time in the Boston journals gave him so high a reputation, that in June, 1794, he was appointed by Washington resident Minister at the Netherlands. In July, 1797, he left The Hague to go to Port- ugal as Minister Plcni[)otentiary. Wash- ington at this time wrote to his father, John Adams:
" Without intending to compliment the father or the mother, or to censure any others, I give it as my decided opinion, that Mr. Adams is the most valuable char- acter we have abroad; and there remains no doubt in my mind that he will prove the ablest of our diplomatic corps."
On his way to Portugal, upon his arrival in London, he met with dispatches direct- ing him to the court of Berlin, but request- ing him to remain in London until he should receive instructions. While waiting he was married to Miss Louisa Catherine John- son, to whom he had been previously en- gaged. Miss Johnson was a daughter of Mr. Joshua Johnson, American Consul in London, and was a lady endowed with that beauty and those accomplishments which fitted her to move in the elevated sphere l^or which she was destined.
In July, 1799, having fulfilled all the pur- poses of his mission, Mr. Adams returned. In 1802 he was chosen to the Senate of Massachusetts from Boston, and then was elected Senator of the United States for six years from March 4, 1804. His reputation, his ability and his experience, placed him immediately among the most prominent and influential members of that body. He sustained the Government in its measures of resistance to the encroachments of Eng- land, destroying our commerce and insult- ing our flag. There was no man in America more familiar with the arrogance of the British court upon these points, and no one more resolved to present a firm resist- ance. This course, so truly patriotic, and which scarcely a voice will now be found to condemn, alienated iiim from the Fed- eral party dominant in Boston, and sub- jected him to censure.
In 1805 Mr. Adams was chosen professor of rhetoric in Harvard College. His lect- ures at this place were subsequently pub- lished. In 1809 he was sent as Minister to Russia. He was one of the commissioners that negotiated the treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed December 24, 1814, and he was appointed Minister to the court of St. James in 1815. In 1817 he became Secretary of State in Mr. Monroe's cabinet in which position he remained eight years. Few will now contradict the assertion that the duties of that office were never more ably discharged. Probably the most im- portant measure which Mr. Adams con- ducted was the purchase of Florida from Spain for $5,000,000.
The campaign of 1824 was an exciting one. Four candidates were in the field. Of the 260 electoral votes that were cast, Andrew Jackson received ninety-nine; John Quincy Adams, eighty-four; William H. Crawford, forty-one, and Henry Clay, thirty-seven. As there was no choice by the people, the question went to the House
42
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
of Representatives. Mr. Clay gave the vote of Kentucky to Mr. Adams, and he was elected.
The friends of all disappointed candidates now combined in a venomous assault upon Mr. Adams. There is nothing more dis- graceful in the past history of our country than the abuse which was poured in one uninterrupted stream upon this high- minded, upright, patriotic man. There was never an administration more pure in prin- ciples, more conscientiously devoted to the best interests of the country, than that of John Ouincy Adams; and never, perhaps, was there an administration more unscru- pulously assailed. Mr. Adams took his seat in the presidential chair resolved not to know any partisans hip, but only to con- sult for the interests of the whole Republic,
He refused to dismiss an)' man from of- fice for his political views. If he was a faith- ful officer that was enough. Bitter must have been hisdisappointment to find that the Nation could not appreciate such conduct.
Mr. Adams, in his public manners, was cold and repulsive; though with his per- sonal friends he was at times very genial. This chilling address very seriously de- tracted from his popularity. No one can read an impartial record of his administra- tion without admitting that a more noble example of uncompromising dignity can scarcely be found. It was stated publicly that Mr. Adams' administration was to be put down, " though it be as pure as the an- gels which stand at the right hand of the throne of God." Many of the active par- ticipants in these scenes lived to regret the C(Hirse they pursued. Some years after, Warren R. Davis, of South Carolina, turn- ing to Mr. Adams, then a member of the House of Representatives, said:
" Well d(j I remember the enthusiastic zeal with which we reproached the admin- istration of that gentleman, and the ardor and vehemence with which wc labored to
bring in another
For the share I had in these transactions, and it was not a small one, I hope God will forgive me, for I shall never forgive myself."
March 4, 1829, Mr. Adams retired- from the Presidency and was succeeded by An- drew Jackson, the latter receiving 168 out of 261 electoral votes. John C. Calhoun was elected Vice-President. The slavery question now began to assume pretentious magnitude. Mr. Adams returned to Quincy, and pursued his studies with una- bated zeal. But he was not long permitted to remain in retirement. In November, 1830, he was elected to Congress. In this he recognized the principle that it is honor- able for the General of yesterday to act as Corporal to-day, if by so doing he can ren- der service to his country. Deep as are our obligations to John Quinc}- Adams for his services as embassador, as Secretary of State and as President; in his capacity as legislator in the House of Representa- tives, he conferred benefits upon our land which eclipsed all the rest, and which can never be over-estimated.
For seventeen years, until his death, he occupied the post of Representative, tow- ering above all his peers, ever ready to do brave battle for freedom, and winning the title of " the old man eloquent." Upon taking his seat in the House he announced that he should hold himself bound to no party. He was usually the first in his place in the morning, and the last to leave his seat in the evening. Not a measure could escape his scrutiny. The battle which he fought, almost singly, against the pro-slavery party in the Government, was sublime in its moral daring and heroism. For persisting in presenting petitions for the abolition of slavery, he was threatened with indictment by the Grand Jury, with expulsion from the House, with assassina- tion; but no threats could intimidate him, and his final triumph was complete.
JOHN ^UINCr ADAMS.
43
On one occasion Mr. Adams presented a petition, signed by several women, against the annexation of Texas for the purpose of cutting it up into slave States. Mr. How- ard, of Maryland, said that these women discredited not only themselves, but their section of the country, by turning from their domestic duties to the conflicts of po- litical life.
"Are women." exclaimed Mr. Adams, " to have no opinions or actions on subjects relating to the general welfare? Where did the gentleman get his principle? Did he find it in sacred history, — in the language of Miriam, the prophetess, in one of the noblest and sublime songs of triumph that ever met the human eve or ear? Did the gentleman never hear of Deborah, to whom the children of Israel came up for judg- ment ? Has he forgotten the deed of Jael, who slew the dreaded enemy of her coun- try? Has he forgotten Esther, who, by her petition saved her people and her coun- try?
" To go from sacred history to profane, does the gentleman there find it ' discredita- ble ' for women to take an interest in politi- cal affairs? Has he forgotten the Spartan mother, who said to her son when going out to battle, ' My son, come back to me with thy shield, or upon thy shield ?' Does he remember Cloelia and her hundred com- panions, who swam across the river unc^er a shower of darts, escaping from Porsena ? Has he forgotten Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi ? Does he not remember Por- tia, the wife of Brutus and the daughter of Cato?
" To come to later periods, what says the history of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors ? To say noth'ng of Boadicea. the British heroine in the time of the C;Esars, what name is more illustrious than that of EHza- beth ? Or, if he will go to the continent, will he not find the names of Maria Theresa of Hungary, of the two Catherines of
Prussia, and of Isabella of Castile, the pa- troness of Columbus ? Did she bring ' dis- credit ' on her sex by mingling in politics ? "
In this glowing strain Mr. Adams si- lenced and overwhelmed his antagonists.
In January, 1842, Mr. Adams presented a petition from forty-five citizens of Haver- hill, Massachusetts, praying for a peaceable dissolution of the Union. The pro-slavery party in Congress, who were then plotting the destruction of the Government, were aroused to a pretense of commotion such as even our stormy hall of legislation has rarely witnessed. They met in caucus, and, finding that the}' probably would not be able to expel Mr. Adams from the House drew up a series of resolutions, which, if adopted, would inflict upon him disgrace, equivalent to expulsion. Mr. Adams had presented the petition, which was most re- spectfully worded, and had moved that it be referred to a committee instructed to re- port an answer, showing the reason whj the prayer ought not to be granted.
It was the 25th of January. The whole body of the pro-slavery party came crowd- ing together in the House, prepared to crush Mr. Adams forever. One of the num- ber, Thomas F. Marshall, of Kentucky, was appointed to read the resolutions, which accused Mr. Adams of high treason, of having insulted the Government, and 01 meriting expulsion; but for which deserved punishment, the House, in its great mercy, would substitute its severest censure. With the assumption of a very solemn and mag- isterial air, there being breathless silence in the audience, Mr. Marshall hurled the care- fully prepared anathemas at his victim. Mr. Adams stood alone, the whole pro-slav- ery party against him.
As soon as the resolutions were read, every eye being fixed upon him, that bold old man, whose scattered locks were whit- ened by seventy-five years, casting a wither- ing glance in the direction of his assailants^
44
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
in a clear, shrill tone, tremulous with sup- pressed emotion, said:
" In reply to this audacious, atrocious charge of high treason, I call for the read- ing of the first paragraph of the Declaration of Independence. Read it ! Read it ! and see what that says of the rights of a people to reform, to change, and to dissolve their Government.'
The attitude, the manner, the tone, the words; the venerable old man, with flash- ing eye and flushed cheek, and whose very form seemed to expand under the inspiration of the occasion — all presented a scene over- flowing in its sublimity. There was breath- less silence as that paragraph was read, in defense of whose principles our fathers had pledged their lives, their fortunes and their sacred honor. It was a proud hour to Mr. Adams as they were all compelled to listen to the words:
" That, to secure these rights, govern- ments are instituted among; men, deriving- their just powers from the consent of the governed; and that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of those ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and organizing its powers in such form as shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness."
That one sentence routed and baffled the
foe. The heroic old man looked around upon the audience, and thundered out, " Read that again ! " It was again read. Then in a few fiery, logical words he stated his defense in terms which even prejudiced minds could not resist. His discomfited assailants made several attempts to rally. After a conflict of eleven days they gave up vanquished and their resolution was ig- nominiously laid upon the table.
In Januarv, 1846, when seventy-eight years of age, he took part in the great de- bate on the Oregon question, displaying intellectual vigor, and an extent and accu- racy of acquaintance with the subject that excited great admiration.
On the 2ist of February, 1848, he rose on the floor of Congress with a paper in his hand to address the Speaker. Suddenly he fell, stricken b}- paralysis, and was caught in the arms of those around him. For a time he was senseless and was conveyed to a sofa in the rotunda. With reviving consciousness he opened his eyes, looked calml}' around and said, " This h the end of earth." Then after a moment's pause, he added, " / am contejtt." These were his last words, and he soon breathed his last, in the apartment beneath the dome of the capitol — ^the theater of his labors and his triumphs. In the language of hymnology, he " died at his post;" he " ceased at once to work and live."
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ANDREW JACKSOAT.
47
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^{ ^XDREW JACKSON, the seventh President of the United States, i829-'37, was born at the VVaxhavv Settle. ■^ ment, Union Coun- ty, North Carolina, March i6, 1767. His parents were Scotch-Irish, natives of Carrickfergus, who came to America in 1765, and settled on Twelve-Mile Creek, a trib- utary of the Catawba. His • father, who was a poor farm laborer, died shortly before An- drew's birth, when his mother removed to Waxhaw, where some relatives resided.
Few particulars of the childhood of Jack- sou have been preserved. His education was of the most limited kind, and he showed no fondness for books. He grew up to be a tall, lank boy, with coarse hair and freck- led cheeks, with bare feet dangling from trousers too short for him, very fond of ath- letic sports, running, boxing and wrestling. He was generous to the younger and weaker boys, but very irascible and over- bearing with his equals and superiors. He was profane — a vice in which he surpassed ail other men. The character of his mother
he revered; and it was not until after her death that his predominant vices gained full strength.
In 1780, at the age of thirteen, Andrew, or Andy, as he was called, with his brother Robert, volunteered to serve in the Revo- lutionary forces under General Sumter, and was a witness of the latter's defeat at Hang- ing Rock. In the following year the brothers were made prisoners, and confined in Camden, experiencing brutal treatment from their captors, and being spectators of General Green's defeat at Hobkirk Hill. Through their mother's exertions the boys were exchanged while suffering from small- pox. In two days Robert was dead, and Andy apparently dying. The strength of his constitution triumphed, and he regained health and vigor.
As he was getting better, his mother heard the cry of anguish from the prison- ers whom the British held in Charleston, among whom were the sons of her sisters. She hastened to their relief, was attacked by fever, died and was buried where her grave could never be found. Thus Andrew Jackson, when fourteen years of age, was left alone m the world, without father, mother, sister or brother, and without one dollar which he could call his own. He
48
^RES/DB/VTS OP THB UNITED STATES.
soon entered a saddler's shop, and labored diligently for six months. But gradually, as health returned, he became more and more a wild, reckless, lawless boy. He gambled, drank and was regarded as about the worst character that could be found.
He now turned schoolmaster. He could teach the alphabet, perhaps the multiplica- tion table; and as he was a very bold boy, it is possible he might have ventured to teach a little writing. But he soon began to think of a profession and decided to study law. With a very slender purse, and on the back of a verj^ fine horse, he set out for Salisbury, North Carolina, where he entered the law office of Mr. McCay. Here he remained two years, professedly studying law. He is still remembered in traditions of Salisbury, which say:
" Andrew Jackson was the most roaring, rollicking, horse-racing, card-plaving, mis- chievous fellow that ever lived in Salisbury. He did not trouble the law-books much."
Andrew was now, at the age of twenty, a tall young man, being over six feet in height. He was slender, remarkably grace- ful and dignified in his manners, an exquis- ite horseman, and developed, amidst his loathesome profanity and multiform vices, a vein of rare magnanimity. His temper was fiery in the extreme; but it was said of him that no man knew better than Andrew Jackson when to get angry and when not.
In 1786 he was admitted to the bar, and two years later removed to Nashville, in what was then the western district of North Carolina, with the appointment of so- licitor, or public prosecutor. It was an of- fice of little honor, small emolument and great peril. Few men could be found to accept it.
And now Andrew Jackson commenced vigorously to practice law. It was an im- portant part of his business to collect debts. It required nerve. During the first seven years of his residence in those wilds he
traversed the almost pathless forest between Nashville and Jonesborough, a distance of 200 miles, twenty-two times. Hostile In- dians were constantly on the watch, and a man was liable at any moment to be shot down in his own field. Andrew Jackson was just the man for this service — a wild, daring, rough backwoodsman. Daily he made hair-breadth escapes. He seemed to bear a charmed life. Boldly, alone or with few companions, he traversed the forests, encountering all perils and triumphing over all.
In 1790 Tennessee became a Territory, and Jackson was appointed, by President Washington, United States Attorney for the new district. In 1791 he married Mrs. Rachel Robards (daughter of Colonel John Donelson), whom he supposed to have been divorced in that year by an act of the Leg- islature of Virginia. Two years after this Mr. and Mrs. Jackson learned, to their great surprise, that Mr. Robards had just obtained a divorce in one of the courts of Kentucky, and that the act of the Virginia Legislature was not final, but conditional. To remedy the irregularity as much as pos- sible, a new license was obtained and the marriage ceremony was again performed.
It proved to be a marriage of rare felic- ity. Probably there never was a more affectionate union. However rough Mr. Jackson might have been abroad, he was always gentle and tender at home; and through all the vicissitudes of their lives, he treated Mrs. Jackson with the most chival- ric attention.
Under the circumstances it was not un- natural that the facts in the case of this marriage were so misrepresented by oppo- nents in the political campaigns a quarter or a century later as to become the basis of serious charges against Jackson's moral- ity which, however, have been satisfactoril}'- attested by abundant evidence.
Jackson was untiring in his duties as
Ax DREW yACA'SO.V.
49
United States Attorney, which demanded frequent journeys through the wilderness and exposed him to Indian hostihties. He acquired considerable property in land, and obtained such influence as to be chosen a member of the convention which framed the Constitution for the new State of Ten- nessee, in 1796, and in that year was elected its first Representative in Congress. Albert Gallatin thus describes the first appearance of the Hon. Andrew Jackson in the House:
" A tall, lank, uncouth-looking personage, with locks of hair hanging over his face and a cue down his back, tied with an eel skin; his dress singular, his manners and deport- ment those of a rough backwoodsman."
Jackson was an earnest advocate of the Democratic party. Jefferson was his idol. He admired Bonaparte, loved France and hated England. As Mr. Jackson took his seat. General Washington, whose second term of office was just expiring, delivered his last speech to Congress. A committee drew up a complimentary address in reply. Andrew Jackson did not approve the ad- dress and was one of twelve who voted against it.
Tennessee had fitted out an expedition against the Indians, contrary to the policy of the Government. A resolution was intro- duced that the National Government should pay the expenses. Jackson advo- cated it and it was carried. This rendered him very popular in Tennessee. A va- cancy chanced soon after to occur in the Senate, and Andrew Jackson was chosen United States Senator by the State of Ten- nessee. John Adams was then President and Thomas Jefferson, Vice-President.
In 1798 Mr. Jackson returned to Tennes- see, and resigned his seat in the Senate. Soon after he was chosen Judge of the Su- preme Court of that State, with a salary of $600. This office he held six years. It is said that his decisions, though sometimes ungrammatical, were generally right. He
did not enjoy his seat upon the bench, and renounced the dignity in 1804. About this time he was chosen Major-General of militia, and lost the title of judge in that of General.
When he retired from the Senate Cham- ber, he decided to trj- his fortune through trade. He purchased a stock of goods in Philadelphia and sent them to Nashville, where he opened a store. He lived about thirteen miles from Nashville, on a tract of land of several thousand acres, mostly un- cultivated. He used a small block-house for a store, from a narrow window of which he sold goods to the Indians. As he had an assistant his office as judge did not materially interfere with his business.
As to slavery, born in the midst of it, the idea never seemed to enter his mind that it could be wrong. He eventually became an extensive slave owner, but he was one of the most humane and gentle of masters.
In 1804 Mr. Jackson withdrew from pol- itics and settled on a plantation which he called the Hermitage, near Nashville. He set up a cotton-gin, formed a partnership and traded in New Orleans, making the voyage on flatboats. Through his hot tem- per he became involved in several quarrels and " affairs of honor," during this period, in one of which he was severely wounded, but had the misfortune to kill his opponent, Charles Dickinson. For a time this affair greatly injured General Jackson's popular- ity. The verdict then was, and continues to be, that General Jackson was outra- geously wrong. If he subsequently felt any remorse he never revealed it to anyone.
In 1805 Aaron Burr had visited Nash- ville and been a guest of Jackson, with whom he corresponded on the subject of a war with Spain, which was anticipated and desired by them, as well as by the people of the Southwest generally.
Burr repeated his visit in September, 1806, when he engaged in the celeorated
50
PREJIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
combinations which led to his trial for trea- son. He was warmly received by Jackson, at whose instance a public ball was given in his honor at Nashville, and contracted with the latter for boats and provisions. Early in 1807, when Burr had been pro- claimed a traitor by President Jefferson, volunteer forces for the Federal service were organized at Nashville under Jack- son's command; but his energy and activ- ity did not shield him from suspicions of connivance in the supposed treason. He was summoned to Richmond as a witness in Burr's trial, but was not called to the stand, probably because he was out-spoken in his partisanship.
On the outbreak of the war with Great Britain in 1812, Jackson tendered his serv- ices, and in January, 181 3, embarked for New Orleans at the head of the Tennessee contingent. In March he received an or- der to disband his forces; but in Septem- ber he again took the field, in the Creek war, and in conjunction with his former partner, Colonel Coffee, inflicted upon the Indians the memorable defeat at Talladega, Eniuckfaw and Tallapoosa.
In May, 1814, Jackson, who had now ac- quired a national reputation, was appointed a Major-General of the United States army, and commenced a campaign against the British in Florida. He conducted the de- fense at Mobile, .September 15, seized upon Pensacola, November 6, and immediately transported the bulk of his troops to New Orleans, then threatened b}' a powerful naval force. Martial law was declared in Louisiana, the State militia was called to arms, engagements with the British were fought December 23 and 28, and after re-en- forcements had been received on both sides <he famous victory of January 8, 181 5, ::rowned Jackson's fame as a soldier, and made him the typical American hero of the first half of the nineteenth century.
In i8i7-'i8 Jackson conducted the war
against the Seminoles of Florida, during which he seized upon Pensacola and exe- cuted by courtmartial two British subjects,
Arbuthnot and Ambrister acts which
might easily have involved the United States in war both with Spain and Great Britain. Fortunately the peril was averted by the cession of Florida to the United States; and Jackson, who had escaped a trial for the irregularity of his conduct onl}' through a division of opinion in Mon- roe's cabinet, was appointed in 1821 Gov- ernor of the new Territory. Soon after he declined the appointment of minister to Mexico.
In 1823 Jackson was elected to the United States Senate, and nominated by the Ten- nessee Legislature for the Presidency. This candidacy, though a matter of surprise, and even merryment, speedily became popular, and in 1824, when the stormy electoral can- vas resulted in the choice of John Ouincy Adams by the House of Representatives, General Jackson received the largest popu- lar vote among the four candidates.
In 1 828 Jackson was triumphantly elected President over Adams after a campaign of unparalleled bitterness. He was inaugu- rated March 4, 1829, and at once removed from office all the incumbents belonging to the opposite part}- — a procedure new to American politics, but which naturally be- came a precedent.
His first term was characterized by quar- rels between the Vice-President, Calhoun, and the Secretary of State, Van Buren, at- tended by a cabinet crisis originating in scandals connected with the name of Mrs. General Eaton, wife of the Secretary of War; by the beginning of his war upon the United States Bank, and by his vigorous action against the partisans of Calhoun, who, in South Carolina, threatened to nullify the acts of Congress, establishing a protective tariff.
In the Presidential campaign of 1S32
ANDREW yACKSON.
51
Jackson received 219 out of 288 electoral votes, his competitor being Mr. Clay, while Mr. Wirt, on an Anti-Masonic platform, received the vote of Vermont alone. In 1833 President Jackson removed the Gov- ernment deposits from the United States bank, thereby incurring a vote of censure from the Senate, which was, however, ex- punged four years later. During this second term of office the Cherokees, Choctawsand Creeks were removed, not without diffi- culty, from Georgia, Alabama and Missis- sippi, to the Indian Territory; the National debt was extinguished; Arkansas and Michigan were admitted as States to the Union; the Seminole war was renewed; the anti-slavery agitation first acquired impor- tance; the M(jrmon delusion, which had organized in 1829, attained considerable proportions in Ohio and Missouri, and the country experienced its greatest pecuniary panic.
Railroads with locomotive propulsion were irtrodured into America during Jack- son's first term, and had become an impor- tant element of national life before the close of his second term. For many rea- sons, theretore, the administration of Presi- dent Jackson formed an era in American history, political, social and industrial. He succeeded in effecting the election of
his friend Van Buren as his successor, re- tired from the Presidency March 4, 1837; and led a tranquil life at the Hermitage until his death, which occurred June 8, 1845. _
During his closing years he was a pro- fessed Christian and a member ot the Pres- byterian church. No American of this century has been the subject of such oppo- site judgments. He was loved and hated with equal vehemence during his life, but at the present distance of time from his career, while opinions still var}' as to the merits of his public acts, few of his country- men will question that he was a warm- hearted, brave, patriotic, honest and sincere man. If his distinguishing qualities were not such as constitute statesmanship, in the highest sense, he at least never pretended to other merits than such as were written to his credit on the page of American his- torv — not attempting to disguise the de- merits which were equally legible. The majority of his countrymen accepted and honored him, in spite of all that calumny as well as truth could allege against him. His faults may therefore be truly said to have been those of his time; his magnifi- cent virtues may also, with the same jus- tice, be considered as typical of a state o/ society which has nearly passed away.
52
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
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REN, the eighth |itt;^,' President of the United States, 1837- '41, was born at Kin- s^^^fef derhook, New York, December 5, 1782. His ancestors were of Dutch origin, and were among the earliest emigrants from Hol- land to the banks of the Hudson. His father was a tavern-keeper, as well as a farmer, and a very decided Democrat. Martin commenced the study of law at the age of fourteen, and took an active part in politics before he had reached the age of twenty. In 1803 he commenced the practice of law in his native village. In 1809 he removed to Hudson, the shire town of his count3% where he spent seven years, gaining strength by contending in the courts with some of the ablest men who have adorned the bar of his State. The heroic example of John Quincy Adams in retaining in office every faithful man, without regard to his political preferences, had been thoroughly repudiated by Gen- eral Jackson. The unfortunate principle was now fully established, that " to the victor belong the spoils." Still, this prin- ciple, to which Mr. Van Buren gave his ad-
herence, was not devoid of inconveniences. When, subsequently, he attained power which placed vast patronage in his hands, he was heard to say : " I prefer an office that has no patronage. When I give a man an office I offend his disappointed competi- tors and their friends. Nor am 1 certain of gaining a friend in the man I appoint, for, in all probability, he expected something better."
In 1812 Mr. Van Buren was elected to the State Senate. In 181 5 he was appointed Attorney-General, and in 18 16 to the Senate a second time. In 1818 there was a great split in the Democratic party in New York, and Mr. Van Buren took the lead in or- ganizing that portion of the party called the Alban}' Regency, which is said to have swayed the destinies of the State for a quarter of a century.
In 1 82 1 he was chosen a member of the convention for revising the State Constitu- tion, in which he advocated an extension of the franchise, but opposed universal suf- frage, and also favored the proposal that colored persons, in order to vote, should have freehold property to the amount of $250. In this year he was also elected to the United States Senate, and at the con- clusion of his term, in 1827, was re-elected, but resigned the following year, having been chosen Governor of the State. In March, 1829, he was appointed Secretary oi
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MARTIN VAN BUR EN.
State by President Jackson, but resigned in April, 1831, and during the recess of Congress was appointed minister to Eng- land, whither he proceeded in September, but the Senate, when convened in Decem- ber, refused to ratify the appointment.
In May, 1832, Mr. Van Buren was nomi- nated as the Democratic candidate for Vice- President, and elected in the following November. May 26, 1836, he received the nomination to succeed General Jackson as President, and received 170 electoral votes, out of 283.
Scarcely had he taken his seat in the Presidential chair when a financial panic swept over the land. Many attributed this to the war which General Jackson had waged on the banks, and to his endeavor to secure an almost exclusive specie currenc}'. Nearly every bank in the country was com- pelled to suspend specie payment, and ruin pervaded ail our great cities. Not less than 254 houses failed in New York in one week. All public works were brought to a stand, and there was a general state of dismay. President Van Buren urged the adoption of the independent treasury system, which was twice passed in the Senate and defeated in the House, but iiually became a law near the close of his ^administration.
Another important measure was the pass- age of a pre-emption law, giving actual set- tlers the preference in the purchase of public lands. The question of slavery, also, now began to assume great prominence in national politics, and after an elaborate anti-slavery speech by Mr. Slade, of Ver- mont, in the House of Representatives, the Southern members withdrew for a separate consultation, at which Mr. Rhett, of South Carolina, proposed to declare it expedient that the Union should be dissolved ; but the matter was tided over by the passage of a resolution that no petitions or papers relating to slavery should be in any way considered or acted upon.
In the Presidential election of 1840 Mr. Van Buren was nominated, without opposi- tion, as the Democratic candidate, William H. Harrison being the candidate of the Whig party. The Democrats carried only seven States, and out of 294 electoral votes only sixty were for Mr. Van Buren, the re- maining 234 being for his opponent. The Whig popular majority, however, was not large, the elections in man)- of the States being very close.
March 4, 1841, Mr. Van Buren retired from the Presidency. From his fine estate at Lindenwald he still exerted a powerful influence upon the politics of the country. In 1844 he was again proposed as the Democratic candidate for the Presidency, and a majority of the delegates of the nominating convention were in his favor ; but, owing to his opposition to the pro- posed annexation of Texas, he could not secure the requisite two-thirds vote. His name was at length withdrawn by his friends, and Mr. Polk received the nomina- tion, and was elected.
In 1848 Mr. Cass was the regular Demo- cratic candidate. A schism, however, sprang up in the party, upon the question of the permission of slavery in the newly- acquired territory, and a portion of the party, taking the name of " Free-Soilers," nominated Mr. Van Buren. They drew away sufficient votes to secure the election of General Taylor, the Whig candidate. After this Mr. Van Buren retired to his es- tate at Kinderhook, where the remainder of his life was passed, with the exception of a European tour in 1853. He died at Kinderhook, July 24, 1862, at the age of eighty years.
Martin Van Buren was a great and good man, and no one will question his right to a high position among those who have been the successors of Washington in the faithful occupancy of the Presidential chair.
t6
PRESIDENTS OP THE UN/ TED STATES.
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LI AM HENRY HARRISON, the
ninth President of the United States, I 84 I, was born February g, 1773, in Charles County, Virginia, at Berkeley, the resi- dence of his father. Governor Benjamin Harrison. He studied at Hampden, Sidney College, with a view of entering the med- ical profession. After graduation he went to Philadelphia to study medicine under the instruction of Dr. Rush. George Washington was then President :>{ the United States. The Indians were committing fearful ravages on our North- western frontier. Young Harrison, either lured by the love of adventure, or moved b}- the sufferings of families exposed to the most horrible outrages, abandoned his med- ical studies and entered the army, having obtained a commission of ensign from Pres- ident Washington. The first duty assigned him was to take a train of pack-horses bound to Fort Hamilton, on the Miami River, about forty miles from Fort Wash- ington. He was soon promoted to the
rank of Lieutenant, and joined the army which Washington had placed under the command of General Wayne to prosecute more vigorously the war with the In- dians. Lieutenant Harrison received great commendation from his commanding offi- cer, and was promoted to the rank of Captain, and placed in command at Fort Washington, now Cincinnati, Ohio.
About this time he married a daughter of John Cleves Symmes, one of the fron- tiersmen who had established a thriving settlement on the bank of the Maumee.
In 1797 Captain Harrison resigned his commission in the army and was appointed Secretary of the Northwest Territory, and ex-officio Lieutenant-Governor, General St. Clair being then Governor of the Territory. At that time the law in reference to the disposal of the public lands was such that no one could purchase in tracts less than 4,000 acres. Captain Harrison, in the face of violent opposition, succeeded in obtaining so much of a modification of this unjust law that the land was sold in alternate tracts of 640 and 320 acres. The Northwest Territory vas then entitled to one delegate in Cftngress, and Cap- tain Harrison was chosen to fill that of- fice. In 1800 he was appointed Governor
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WILLIAM HENUY HARRISON.
S9
of Indiana Territory and soon after of Upper Louisiana. He was also Superin- tendent of Indian Affairs, and so well did he fulfill these duties that he was four times appointed to this office. During his admin- istration he effected thirteen treaties with the Indians, by which the United States acquired 60,000,000 acres of land. In 1804 he obtained a cession from the Indians of all the land between the Illinois River and the Mississippi.
In 1S12 he was made Major-General of Kentucky militia and Brigadier-General m the army, with the command of the Northwest frontier. In 1813 he was made Major-General, and as such won much re- nown by the defense of Fort Meigs, and the battle of the Thames, Octobers, 1813. In 1814 he left the army and was employed in Indian affairs by the Government.
In 1816 General Harrison was chosen a member of the National House of Repre- sentatives to represent the district of Ohio. In the contest which preceded his election he was accused of corruption in respect to the commissariat of the army. Immedi- ately upon taking his seat, he called for an investigation of the charge. A committee was appointed, and his vindication was triumphant. A high compliment was paid to his patriotism, disinterestedness and devotion to the public service. For these services a gold medal was presented to him with the thanks of Congress.
In 1 8 19 he was elected to the Senate of Ohio, and in 1824, as one of the Presiden- tial electors of that State, he gave his vote to Henry Clay. In the same year he was elected to the Senate of the United States. In 1828 he was appointed by President Adams minister plenipotentiary to Colom- bia, but was recalled by General Jackson immediately after the inauguration of the latter.
Upon his return to the United States, General Harrison retired to his farm at
North Bend, Hamilton County, Ohio, six- teen miles below Cincinnati, where for twelve years he was clerk of the Count}^ Court. He once owned a distillery, but perceiving the sad effects of whisky upon the surrounding population, he promptly abandoned his business at great pecuniary sacrifice.
In 1836 General Harrison was brought forward as a candidate for the Presidency. Van Buren was the administration candi- date; the opposite party could not unite, and four candidates were brought forward. General Harrison received seventy-three electoral votes without any general concert among his friends. The Democratic party triumphed and Mr. Van Buren was chosen President. In 1839 General Harrison was again nominated for the Presidency by the Whigs, at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Mr. Van Buren being the Democratic candi- date. General Harrison received 234 elec- toral votes against sixty for his opponent. This election is memorable chiefly for the then extraordinary means employed during the canvass for popular votes. Mass meet- ings and processions were introduced, and the watchwords " log cabin " and " hard cider " were effectually used by the Whigs, and aroused a popular enthusiasm.
A vast concourse of people attended his inauguration. His address on that occasion was in accordance with his antecedents, and gave great satisfaction. A short time after he took his seat, he was seized by a pleurisy- fever, and after a few days of violent sick- ness, died April 4, just one short month after his inauguration. His death was universally regarded as one of the greatest of National calamities. Never, since the death of Washington, were there, throughout one land, such demonstrations of sorrow. Not one single spot can be found to suU}- his fame; and through all ages Americans will pronounce with love and reverence the name of William Henry Harrison.
6o
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
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OHN TYLER, the tenth President of the United States, was born in Charles City County, S7. "~ ipr ,^ y^ Virginia, March 29, 1790. ^^'v^iy!t;^Sii^ His father, Judge John Tyler, possessed large landed estates in Virginia, and was one of the most distinguished men of his da\', filling the offices of Speaker of the House of Delegates, Judge of the Su- preme Court and Governor of the State. At the early age of twelve young John entered William and Mary College, and graduated with honor when but seventeen years old. He then closely applied himself to the stud}' of law, and at nineteen years of age commenced the prac- tice of his profession. When only twenty- one he was elected to a seat in the State Legislature. He acted with the Demo- cratic party and advocated the measures of Jefferson and Madison. For five years he was elected to the Legislature, receiving nearly the unanimous vote of his county.
When but twenty-six years of age he was elected a member of Congress. He advo- cated a strict construction of the Constitu- tion and the most careful vigilance over
State rights. He was soon compelled to resign his seat in Congress, owing to ill health, but afterward took his seat in the State Legislature, where he exerted a powerful influence in promoting public works of great utility.
In 1825 Mr. Tyler was chosen Governor of his State — a high honor, for Virginia had many able men as competitors for the prize. His administration was signally a successful one. He urged forward inter- nal improvements and strove to remove sectional jealousies. His popularity secured his re-election. In 1827 he was elected United States Senator, and upon taking his seat joined the ranks of the opposition. He opposed the tariff, voted against the bank as unconstitutional, opposed all restrictions upon slavery, resisted all projects of inter- nal improvements by the General Govern- ment, avowed his sympathy with Mr. Cal- houn's views of nullification, and declared that General Jackson, b\- his opposition to the nullifiers, had abandoned the principles of the Democratic party. Such was Mr. Tyler's record in Congress.
This hostility to Jackson caused Mr. Tyler's retirement from the Senate, after his election to a second term. He soon after removed to Williamsburg for the better education of his children, and again took his seat in the Legislature.
JOHN TYLER.
63
In 1839 he was sent to the National Con- vention at Harrisburg to nominate a Presi- dent. General Harrison received a majority of votes, much to the disappointment of the South, who had wished for Henry Clay. In order to conciliate the Southern Whigs, John Tyler was nominated for Vice-Presi- dent. Harrison and Tyler were inaugu- rated March 4, 1841. In one short month from that time President Harrison died, and Mr. Tyler, to his own surprise as well as that of the nation, found himself an occupant of the Presidential chair. His position was an exceedingly difficult one, as he was opposed to the main principles of the party which had brought him into power. General Harrison had selected a Whig cabinet Should he retain them, and thus surround himself with councilors whose views were antagonistic to his own? or should he turn against the party that had elected him, and select a cabinet in harmony with himself? This was his fear- ful dilemma.
President Tyler deserves more charity than he has received. He issued an address to the people, which gave general satisfac- tion. He retained the cabinet General Harrison had selected. His veto of a bill chartering a new national bank led to an open quarrel with the party which elected him, and to a resignation of the entire cabinet, except Daniel Webster, Secretary of State.
President Tyler attempted to conciliate. He appointed a new cabinet, leaving out all strong party men, but the Whig members of Congress were not satisfied, and they published a manifesto September 13, break- ing off all political relations. The Demo- crats had a majority in the House ; the Whigs in the Senate. Mr. Webster soon found it necessary to resign, being forced out by the pressure of his Whig friends.
April 12, 1844, President Tyler concluded, Through Mr. Calhoun, a treaty [or the an-
nexation of Texas, which was rejected by the Senate ; but he effected his object in the closing days of his administration by the passage of the joint resolution of March i
1845.
He was nominated for the Presidency by an informal Democratic Convention, held at Baltimore in May, 1844, but soon with- drew from the canvass, perceiving that he had not gained the confidence of the Demo- crats at large.
Mr. Tyler's administration was particu- larly unfortunate. No one was satisfied. Whigs and Democrats alike assailed him. Situated as he was, it is more than can be expected of human nature that he should, in all cases, have acted in the wisest manner ; but it will probably be the verdict of all candid men, in a careful review of his career, that John Tyler was placed in a position of such difficulty that he could not pursue an}' course which would not expose him to severe censure and denunciation.
In 1813 Mr. Tyler married Letitia Chris- tian, who bore him three sons and three daughters, and died in Washington in 1842. June 26, 1844, he contracted a second mar- riage with Miss Julia Gardner, of New York. He lived in almost complete retire- ment from politics until February, i86i, when he was a member of the abortive " peace convention," held at Washington, and was chosen its President. Soon after he renounced his allegiance to the United States and was elected to the Confederate Congress. He died at Richmond, January 17, 1862, after a short illness.
Unfortunately for his memory the name of John Tyler must forever be associated with all the misery of that terrible Re- bellion, whose cause he openly espoused. It is with sorrow that history records that a President of the United States died while defending the flag of rebellion, which was arrayed against the national bannc in deadly warfare.
PRES/DEA'TS OF THE UN/TED STATES.
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AMES KNOX POLK, the eleventh President of !#«* the United States, 1845- \S^ '49, was born in Meck-
lenburg County, North Carolina, November 2, 1795. He was the eldest son of a family of six sons and four daughters, and was a grand-nephew of Colonel Thomas Polk, celebrated in connection with the Meck- lenburg Declaration of In- dependence.
In 1806 his father, Samuel Polk, emigrated with his fam- ily' two or three hundred miles west to the valley of the Duck River. He was a sur- veyor as well as farmer, and gradually in- creased in wealth until he became one of the leading men of the region.
In the common schools James rapidly be- came proficient in all the common branches of an English education. In 18 13 he was sent to Murfreesboro Academy, and in the autumn of 181 5 entered the sophomore class in the University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, graduating in 1818. After a short season of recreation he went to Nash- ville and entered the law office of Felix Grundy. As soon as he had his finished
legal studies and been admitted to the bar, he returned to Columbia, the shire town of Maury County, and openeu an office.
James K. Polk ever adhered to the polit- ical faith of his father, which was that of a Jeffersonian Republican. In 1823 he was elected to the Legislature of Tennessee. As a " strict constructionist," he did not think that the Constitution empowered the Gen- eral Government to carr}' on a system of internal improvements in the States, but deemed it important that it should have that power, and wished the Constitution amended that it might be conferred. Sub- sequentl}-, however, he became alarmed lest the General Government become so strong as to undertake to interfere with slavery. He therefore gave all his influence to strengthen the State governments, and to check the growth of the central power.
In January, 1824, Mr. Polk married Miss Mary Childress, of Rutherford Count}', Ten- nessee. Had some one then whispered to him that he was destined to become Presi- dent of the United States, and that he must select for his companion one who would adorn that distinguished station, he could not have made a more fitting choice. She was truly a lady of rare beauty and culture.
In the fall of 1825 Mr. Polk was chosen a member of Congress, and was continu-
JAMES A'. POLK.
67
ously re-elected until 1839. He then with- drew, only that he might accept the gubernatorial chair of his native State. He was a warm friend of General Jackson, who had been defeated in the electoral contest by John Quincy Adams. This latter gentleman had just taken his seat in the Presidential chair when Mr. Polk took his seat in the House of Representatives. He immediately united himself with the opponents of Mr. Adams, and was soon regarded as the leader of the Jackson party in the House.
The four years of Mr. Adams' adminis- tration passed away, and General Jackson took tne Presidential chair. Mr. Polk had now become a man of great influence in Congress, and was chairman of its most important committee — that of Ways and Means. Eloquently he sustained General Jackson in all his measures — in his hostility to internal improvements, to the banks, and to the tariff. Eight years of General Jack- son's administration passed away, and the powers he had wielded passed into the hands of Martin Van Buren ; and still Mr. Polk remained in the House, the advocate of that type of Democracy which those distinguished men upheld.
During five sessions of Congress Mr. Polk was speaker of the House. He per- formed his arduous duties to general satis- faction, and a unanimous vote of thanks to him was passed by the House as he with- drew, March 4, 1839. He was elected Governor by a large majority, and took the oath of office at Nashville, October 14, 1839. He was a candidate for re-election in 1 84 1, but was defeated. In the mean- time a wonderful revolution had swept over the country. AV. H. Harrison, the Whig candidate, had been called to the Presiden- tial chair, and in Tennessee the Whig ticket had been carried by over 12,000 majority. Under these circumstances Mr. Polk's suc- cess was hopeless. Still he canvassed the
State with his Whig competitor, Mr. Jones, traveling in the most friendly manner to- gether, often in the same carriage, and at one time sleeping in the same bed. Mr. Jones was elected by 3.000 majority.
And now the question of the annexation of Texas to our country agitated the whole land. When this question became national Mr. Polk, as the avowed champion of an- nexation, became the Presidential candidate of the pro-slavery wing of the Democratic party, and George M. Dallas their candi- date for the Vice-Presidency. They were elected by a large majority, and were in- augurated March 4, 1845.
President Polk formed an able cabinet, consisting of James Buchanan, Robert J. Walker, William L. Marcy, George Ban croft, Cave Johnson and John Y. Mason. The Oregon boundary question was settled, the Department of the Interior was created, the low tariff ol 1846 was carried, the financial sj^stem of the Government was reorganized, the Mexican war was con- ducted, which resulted in the acquisition of California and New Mexico, and had far- reaching consequences upon the later fort- unes of the republic. Peace was made. We had wrested from Mexico territory equal to four times the empire of France, and five times that of Spain. In the prose- cution of this war we expended 20,000 lives and more than $100,000,000. Of this money $15,000,000 were paid to Mexico.
Declining to seek a renomination, Mr. Polk retired from the Presidency March 4, 1849, when he was succeeded by General Zachary Taylor. He retired to Nashville, and died there June 19, 1849, i" the fifty- fourth year of his age. His funeral was at- tended the following day, in Nashville, with every demonstration of respect. He left no children. Without being possessed of extraordinary talent, Mr. Polk was a capable administrator of public affairs, and irre- proachable in private life.
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PRESrDBNTS OF THE UN/TED STATES.
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ACHARY TAY- LOR, the twelfth President of the United States, 1 849-' 50, was born in Orange Count}', Virginia, Scptem- , 1784. His father, Richard Taylor, was Colo- nel of a Virginia regiment in the Revolutionary' war, and removed to Kentucky in 1785 ; purchased a large plantation near Louisville and became an influential cit- izen ; was a member of the convention that framed the Constitution of Kentucky; served in both branches of the Legislature ; was Collector of the port of Louisville under President Washington ; as a Presidential elector, voted for Jefferson, Madison, Mon- roe and Clay; died January 19,1829.
Zacharv remained on his father's planta- tion until 1S08, in which year (May 3) he was appointed First Lieutenant in the Seventh Infantry, to fill a vacancy oc- casioned by the death of his elder brother, Hancock. Up to this point he had received but a limited education.
Joining his regiment at New Orleans, he
was attacked with yellow fever, with nearly fatal termination. In November, 18 10, he was promoted to Captain, and in the sum- mer of 18 1 2 he was in command of Fort Harrison, on the left bank of the Wabash River, near the present site of Terre Haute, his successful defense of which with but a handful of men against a large force of Indians which liad attacked him was one of the first marked military achievements of the war. He was then brevetted Major, and in 1814 promoted to the full rank.
During the remainder of the war Taylor was actively employed on the Western frontier. In the peace organization of 181 5 he was retained as Captain, but soon after resigned and settled near Louisville. In May, 1S16, however, he re-entered the army as Major of the Third Infantry ; became Lieutenant-Colonel of the Eighth Infantry in 1819, and in 1832 attained the Colonelcy of the First Infantry, of which he had been Lieutenant-Colonel since 1821. On different occasions he had been called to Washington as member of a military board for organiz- ing the militia of the Union, and to aid the Government with his knowledge in the organization of the Indian Bureau, having for many years discharged the duties 01 Indian agent over large tracts of Western
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country. He served through the Black Hawk war in 1832, and in 1837 was ordered to take command in Florida, then the scene of war with the Indians.
In 1846 he was transferred to the com- mand of the Army of the Southwest, from which he was relieved the same year at his own request. Subsequently, he was sta- tioned on the Arkansas frontier at Forts Gibbon, Smith and Jesup, which latter work rtad been built under his direction in 1822.
May 28, 1845, he received a dispatch from the Secretary of War informing him of the receipt of information by the President " that Texas would shortly accede to the terms of annexation," in which event he was instructed to defend and protect her from " foreign invasion and Indian incur- sions." He proceeded, upon the annexation of Texas, with about 1,500 men to Corpus Chnsti, where his force was increased to some 4,000.
Taylor was brevetted Major-General May 28, and a month later, June 29, 1846, his full commission to that grade was issued. After needed rest and reinforcement, he advanced in September on Monterey, which city ca- pitulated after three-days stubborn resist- ance. Here he took up his winter quarters. The plan for the invasion of Mexico, by way of Vera Cruz, with General Scott in command, was now determined upon by the Govenrment, and at the moment Taylor was about to resume active operations, he received orders to send the larger part of his force to reinforce the army of General Scott at Vera Cruz. Though subsequently reinforced by raw recruits, yet after pro- viding a garrison for Monterey and Saltillo he had but about 5,300 effective troops, of which but 500 or 600 were regulars. In this weakened condition, however, he was destined to achieve his greatest victory. Confidently relying upon his strength at Vera Cruz to resist the enemy for a long
time, Santa Anna directed his entire army «
against Taylor to overwhelm him, and then to return to oppose the advance of Scotfs more formidable invasion. The battle of Buena Vista was fought February 22 and 23, 1847. Taylor received the thanks of Congress and a gold medal, and " Old Rough and Ready," the sobriquet given him in the army, became a household word. He remained in quiet possession of the Rio Grande Valley until November, when he returned to the United States.
In the Whig convention which met at PhiIadelphia,June 7, 1848, Taylor was nomi- nated on the fourth ballot as candidate :;{ the Whig party for Presideni, over Henry Clav, General Scott and Daniel Webster. In November Taylor received a majority of electoral votes, and a popular vote of 1,360,752, against 1,219,962 for Cass and Butler, and 291,342 for Van Buren and Adams. General Taylor was inaugurated March 4, 1849.
The free and slave States being then equal in number, the struggle for supremacy on the part of the leaders in Congress was violent and bitter. In the summer of 1849 California adopted in convention a Consti- tution prohibiting slavery within its borders. Taylor advocated the immediate admission of California with her Constitution, and the postponement of the question as to the other Territories until they could hold conven- tions and decide for themselves whether slavery should exist within their borders. This policy ultimately prevailed through the celebrated " Compromise Measures" of Henry Clay ; but not during the life of the brave soldier and patriot statesman. July 5 he was taken suddenly ill with a bilious fever, which proved fatal, his death occur- ring July 9, 1850. One of his daughters married Colonel W. W. S. Bliss, his Adju- tant-General and Chief of Staff in Florida and Mexico, and Private Secretary during his Presidency. Another daughter was married to Jefferson Davis.
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
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ILLARD FILL- MORE, the thir- ^'Mii teenth President of the United States, i850-'3, was born in Summer Hill, Cayuga County, New York, Janu- ary 7, i8oo. He was of New England ancestry, and liis educational advantages were limited. He earl}' .^.j i—^ ,;-. learned the clothiers' trade, -■4" Q; '■%. '^'^'t spent all his leisure time II "" in study. At nineteen years * of age he was induced by Judge Walter Wood to abandon his trade and commence the study of law. Upon learning that the young man was entirely destitute of means, he took him into his own office and loaned him such money as he needed. That he might not be heavily burdened with debt, 3'oung Fillmore taught school during the winter months, and in various other ways helped himself along. At the age of twenty-three he was ad- mitted to the Court of Common Pleas, and commenced the practice of his profession in the village <;f Aurora, situated on the
eastern bank of the Caj-uga Lake. In 1825 he married Miss Abigail Powers, daughter of Rev. Lemuel Powers, a lady of great moral worth. In 1S25 he took his seat in the House of Assembly of his native State, as Representative from Erie County, whither he had recently moved.
Though he had never taken a very active part in politics his vote and his sym- pathies were with the Whig party. The State was then Democratic, but his cour- tesy, ability and integrity won the respect of his associates. In 1832 he was elected to a seat in the United States Congress. At the close of his term he returned to his law practice, and in two years more he was again elected to Congress.
He now began to have a national reputa- tion. His labors were very arduous. To draft resolutions in the committee room, and then to defend them against the most skillful opponents on the floor of the House requires readiness of mind, mental resources and skill in debate such as few possess. Weary with these exhausting labors, and pressed by the claims of his private affairs, Mr. Fillmore wrote a letter to his constitu- ents and declined to be a candidate foi re- election. Notwithstanding this ccmmuai-
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MTLLARD FILLMORE.
75
cation his friends met in convention and renominated him by acclamation. Though gratified by this proof of their appreciation of his labors he adhered to his resolve and returned to his home.
In 1847 Mr. Fillmore was elected to the important office of comptroller of the State. In entering upon the very responsible duties which this situation demanded, it was nec- essary for him to abandon his profession, and he removed to the city of Albany. In this year, also, the Whigs were looking around to find suitable candidates for the President and Vice-President at the ap- proaching election, and the names of Zach- ary Taylor and Millard Fillmore became the rallying cry of the Whigs. On the 4th of March, 1849, General Taylor was inaug- urated President and Millard Fillmore Vice-President of the United States.
The great question of slavery had as- sumed enormous proportions, and perme- ated every subject that was brought before Congress. It was evident that the strength of our institutions was to be severely tried. July 9, 1850, President Taylor died, and, by the Constitution, Vice-President Fillmore became President of the United States. The agitated condition of the country brought questions of great delicacy before him. He was bound by his oath of office to execute the laws of the United States. One of these laws was understood to be, that if a slave, escaping from bondage, should reach a free State, the United States was bound to do its utmost to capture him and return him to his master. Most Chris- tian men loathed this law. President Fill- more felt bound by his oath rigidly to see it enforced. Slavery was organizing armies to invade Cuba as it had invaded Texas, and annex it to the United States. Presi- dent Fillmore gave all the influence of his exalted station against the atrocious enter- prise.
Mr. Fillmore had serious difficulties to
contend with, since the opposition had a majority in both Houses. He did every- thing in his power to conciliate the South, but the pro-slavery party in that section felt the inadequency of all measures of tran- sient conciliation. The population of the free States was so rapidly increasing over that of the slave States, that it was inevita- ble that the power of the Government should soon pass into the hands of the free States. The famous compromise measures were adopted under Mr. Fillmore's admin- istration, and the Japan expedition was sent out.
March 4, 1853, having served one term, President Fillmore retired from office. He then took a long tour through the South, where he met with quite an enthusiastic reception. In a speech at Vicksburg, al- luding to the rapid growth of the country, he said:
" Canada is knocking for admission, and Mexico would be glad to come in, and without saying whether it would be right or wrong, we stand with open arms to re- ceive them; for it is the manifest destiny of this Government to embrace the whole North American Continent."
In 1855 Mr. Fillmore went to Europe where he was received with those marked attentions which his position and character merited. Returning to this country in 1856 he was nominated for the Presidency bv the "Know-Nothing" party. Mr. Bu- chanan, the Democratic candidate was the successful competitor. Mr. Fillmore ever afterward lived in retirement. Dur- ing the conflict of civil war he was mostly silent. It was generally supposed, how- ever, that hissympath}' was with the South- ern Confederacy. He kept aloof from the conflict without any words of cheer to the one party or the other. For this reason he was forgotten by both. He died of paralysis, in Buffalo, New York, March 8, 1874.
76
PHESIDBNTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
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RANKLIN PIERCE,
the fourteenth Presi- •^ ■'v|^^Si^i^>---<' dent of the United
-?H'Mt^^^'' f^'- States, was born in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, Novem- ber 23, 1804. His father, Governor Benjamin Pierce, was a Rev- olutionary soldier, a man of rigid integrity ; was for sev- eral years in the State Legis- lature, a member of the Gov- ernor's council and a General of the militia. Franklin was the sixth of eight children. As a boy he listened eagerly to the argu- ments of his father, enforced by strong and ready utterance and earnest gesture. It was in the days of intense political excite- ment, when, all over the New England States, Federalists and Democrats were ar- rayed so fiercely against each other.
In 1820 he entered Bowdoin College, at Brunswick, Maine, and graduated in 1824, and commenced the study of law in the office of Judge Woodbury, a very distin- guished lawj'er, and in 1827 was admitted to the bar. He practiced with great success in Hillsborough and Concord, He served
in the State Legislature four years, the last two of which he was chosen Speaker of the House by a very large vote.
In 1833 he was elected a member of Con- gress. In 1837 he was elected to the United States Senate, just as Mr. Van Buren com- menced his administration.
In 1834 he married Miss Jane Means Appleton, a lady admirably fitted to adorn every station with which her husband was honored. Three sons born to them all found an early grave.
Upon his accession to office, President Polk appointed Mr. Pierce Attorney-Gen- eral of the United States, but the offer was declined in consequence of numerous pro- fessional engagements at home and the precarious state of Mrs. Pierce's health. About the same time he also declined the nomination for Governor b}' the Demo- cratic party.
The war with Mexico called Mr. Pierce into the army. Receiving the appointment of Brigadier-General, he embarked with a portion of his troops at Newport, Rhode Island, May 27, 1847. He served during this war, and distinguished himself by his bravery, skill and excellent judgment. When he reached his home in his native State he was enthusiastically received by
FRANKLIN PIERCE.
the advocates of the war, and coldly by its opponents. He resumed the practice of his profession, frequently taking an active part in political questions, and giving his sup- port to the pro-slavery wing of the Demo- cratic part}-.
June 12, 1852, the Democratic convention met in Baltimore to nominate a candidate for the Presidency. For four days they continued in session, and in thirty-five bal- lotings no one had received the requisite two-thirds vote. Not a vote had been thrown thus far for General Pierce. Then the Virginia delegation brought forward his name. There were fourteen more bal- lotings, during which General Pierce gained strength, until, at the fort\'-ninth ballot, he received 282 votes, and all other candidates eleven. General Winfield Scott was the Whig candidate. General Pierce was elected with great unanimity. Onl)' four States — Vermont, Massachusetts, Ken- tucky and Tennessee — cast their electoral votes against him. March 4, 1853, he was inaugurated President of the United States, and William R. King, Vice-President.
President Pierce's cabinet consisted of William S. Marc\% James Guthrie, Jefferson Davis, James C. Dobbin, Robert McClel- land, James Campbell and Caleb Cushing.
At the demand of slavery the Missouri Compromise was repealed, and all the Ter- ritories of the Union were thrown open to slavery. The Territory of Kansas, west of Missouri, was settled by emigrants mainly from the North. According to law, they were about to meet and decide whether slavery or freedom should be the law of that realm. Slavery in Missouri and other Southern States rallied her armed legions, marched them into Kansas, took possession of the polls, drove away the citizens, deposited their own votes by handiuls, went through the farce of count- ing them, and then declared that, by an overwhelming majority, slavery was estab-
lished in Kansas. These facts nobody denied, and yet President Pierce's adminis- tration felt bound to respect the decision obtained by such votes. The citizens of Kansas, the majority of whom were free- State men, met in convention and adopted the following resolve :
"Resolved, That the body of men who, for the past two months, have been passing laws for the people of our Territory, moved, counseled and dictated to b}' the demagogues of other States, are to us a foreign body, representing only the lawless invaders who elected them, and not the people of this Territory ; that we repudiate their action as the monstrous consummation of an act of violence, usurpation and fraud unparalleled in the history of the Union."
The free-State people of Kansas also sent a petition to the General Government, im- ploring its protection. In reply the Presi- dent issued a proclamation, declaring that Legislature thus created must be recog- nized as the legitimate Legislature of Kan- sas, and that its laws were binding upon the people, and that, if necessary, the whole force of the Governmental arm would be put forth to inforce those laws.
James Buchanan succeeded him in the Presidency, and, March 4, 1857, President Pierce retired to his home in Concord, New Hampshire. When the Rebellion burst forth Mr. Pierce remained steadfast to the principles he had always cherished, and gave his sympathies to the pro-slavery party, with which he had ever been allied. He declined to do anything, either by voice or pen, to strengthen the hands of the National Government. He resided in Concord until his death, which occurred in October, 1S69. He was one of the most genial and social of men, generous to a fault, and contributed liberally of his moderate means for the alleviation of suf- fering and want. He was an honored communicant of the Episcopal church.
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'AMES BUCHANAN, the fifteenth President of the United States. i857-'6i, was born in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, April 23, 1791. The place where his father's cabin stood was called Stony Batter, and it was situated in a wild, romantic spot, in a gorge of mount- ains, with towering sum- mits rising all around. He was of Irish ancestry, his father having emigrated in- " J, with very little prop- erty, save his own strong arms.
James remained in his secluded home for eight years enjoying very few social or intellectual advantages. His parents were industrious, frugal, prosperous and intelli- gent. In 1799 his father removed to Mer- cersburg, where James was placed in school and commenced a course in English, Greek and Latin. His progress was rapid and in 1801 he entered Dickinson College at Carlisle. Here he took his stand among the first scholars in the institution, and was able to master the most abstruse subjects with facility. In 1809 he graduated with the highest honors in his class.
He was then eighteen years of age, tall,
graceful and in vigorous health, fond oi athletic sports, an unerring shot and en- livened with an exuberant flow of animal spirits. He immediately commenced the study of law in the city of Lancaster, and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He rose very rapidly in his profession and at once took undisputed stand with the ablest law- yers of the State. When but twenty-six years of age, unaided by counsel, he suc- cessfully defended before the State Senate one of the Judges of the State, who was tried upon articles of impeachment. At the age of thirty it was generall}' admitted that he stood at the head of the bar, and there was no law3'er in the State who had a more extensive or lucrative practice.
In 1812, just after Mr. Buchanan had entered upon the practice of the law, our second war with England occurred. With all his powers he sustained the Govern- ment, eloquently urging the rigorous pros- ecution of the war: and even enlisfing as a private soldier to assist in repelling the British, who had sacked Washington and were threatening Baltimore. He was at that time a Federalist, but when the Con- stitution was adopted by both parties, Jefferson truly said, " We are all Federal- ists; we are all Republicans."
The opposition of the Federalists to the war with England, and the alien and sedi-
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tion laws of John x^dams, brought the part}' into dispute, and the name of Federalist became a reproach. Mr. Buchanan almost immediately upon entering Congress began to incline more and more to the Repub- licans. In the storm}' Presidential election of 1824, in which Jackson, Clay, Crawford and John Quincy Adams were candidates, Mr. Buchanan espoused the cause of Gen- eral Jackson and unrelentingly opposed the administration of Mr. Adams.
Upon his elevation to the Presidency, General Jackson appointed Mr. Buchanan, minister to Russia. Upon his return in 1833 he was elected to a seat in the United States Senate. He there met as his associates, Webster, Clay, Wright and Calhoun. He advocated the measures proposed by Presi- dent Jackson of making reprisals against France, and defended the course of the Pres- ident in his unprecedented and wholesale removals from office of those who were not the supporters of his administration. Upon this question he was brought into direct col- lision with Henry Clay. In the discussion of the question respecting the admission of Michigan and Arkansas into the Union, Mr. Buchanan defined his position by saying:
" The older I grow, the more I am in- clined to be what is called a State-rights man."
M. de Tocqueville, in his renowned work upon " Democracy in America," foresaw the trouble which was inevitable from the doctrine of State sovereignty as held by Calhoun and Buchanan. He was con- vinced that the National Government was losing that strength which was essential to its own existence, and that the States were assuming powers which threatened the perpetuity of the Union. Mr. Buchanan received the book in the Senate and de- clared the fears of De Tocqueville to be groundless, and yet he lived to sit in the Presidential chair and see State after State, in accordance with his own views of State
rights, breaking from the Union, thus crumbling our Republic into ruins; while the unhappy old man folded his arms in despair, declaring that the National Consti- tution invested him with no power to arrest the destruction.
Upon Mr. Polk's accession to the Prcsi- dencv, Mr. Buchanan became Secretary of State, and as such took his share of thf responsibility in the conduct of the Mexi- can war. At the close of Mr. Polk's ad- ministration, Mr. Buchanan retired to pri- vate life; but his intelligence, and his great ability as a statesman, enabled him to exert a powerful influence in National affairs.
Mr. Pierce, upon his election to the Presidency, honored Mr. Buchanan with the mission to England. In the year 1856 the National Democratic convention nomi- nated Mr. Buchanan for the Presidency. The political conflict was one of the most severe in which our country has ever en- gaged. On the 4th of March, 1857, Mr. Buchanan was inaugurated President. His cabinet were Lewis Cass, Howell Cobb, J. B. Floyd, Isaac Toucey, Jacob Thomp- son, A. V. Brown and J. S. Black.
The disruption of the Democratic party, in consequence of the manner in which the issue of the nationality of slavery was pressed by the Southern wing, occurred at the National convention, held at Charleston in April, i860, for the nomination of Mr. Buchanan's successor, when the majority of Southern delegates withdrew upon the passage of a resolution declaring that the constitutional status of slavery should be determined by the Supreme Court.
In the next Presidential canvass Abra- ham Lincoln was nominated by the oppo- nents of Mr. Buchanan's administration. Mr. Buchanan remained in Washington long enough to see his successor installed and then retired to his home in Wheatland. He died June i, 1868, aged seventy-seven years.
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
BRAHAM LIN- COLN, the sixteenth President of the United States, i86i-'5, was born February "^rf^p.^^ 12, 1809, in Larue (then Hardin) Count}', Kentucky, in a cabin on Nolan Creek, three miles west of Hudgensville. H i s parents were Thomas and Nancy (Hanks) Lincoln. Of his an- cestry and early years the little that is known may best be given in his own language : " Mj' parents were both born in Virginia, of un- distinguished families — second families, per- haps I should sa}'. My mother, who died in my tenth year, was of a family of the name of Hanks, some of whom now remain in Adams, and others in Macon County, Illinois. My paternal grandfather, Abra- ham Lincoln, emigrated from Rockbridge County, Virginia, to Kentucky in 1781 or 1782, where, a year or two later, he was killed by Indians — not in battle, but b}- stealth, when he was laboring to open a farm in the forest. His ancestors, who were (Juakers, went to Virginia from Berks County, Pennsylvania. An effort to iden-
tify them with the New England family of the same name ended in nothing more defi- nite than a similarity of Christian names in both families, such as Enoch, Levi, Mor- decai, Solomon, Abraham and the like. My father, at the death of his father, was but six 3'ears of age, and he grew up, liter- ally, without education. He removed from Kentucky to what is now Spencer County, Indiana, in my eighth year. We reached our new home about the time the State came into the Union. It was a vi'ild region, with bears and other wild animals still in the woods. There I grew to manhood.
" There were some schools, so called, but no qualification was ever required of a teacher beyond ' readin', writin', and cipher- in' to the rule of three.' If a straggler, sup- posed to understand Latin, happened to sojourn in the neighborhood, he was looked upon as a wizard. There was absolutely nothing to excite ambition for education. Of course, when I came of age I did not know much. Still, somehow, I could read, write and cipher to the rule of three, and that was all. I have not been to school since. The little advance I now have upon this store of education I have picked up from time to time under the pressure of necessity. I was raised to farm-work, which
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I continued till I was twenty-two. At twenty-one I came to Illinois and passed the first year in Macon County. Then I got to New Salem, at that time in Sangamon, now in Menard County, where I remained a year as a sort of clerk in a store.
"Then came the Black Hawk war, and I was elected a Captain of volunteers — a suc- cess which gave me more pleasure than any I have had since. I went the campaign, was elated ; ran for the Legislature the same year (183J) and was beaten, the only tune I have ever been beaten by the people. The next and three succeeding biennial elections I was elected to the Legislature, and was never a candidate afterward.
" During this legislative period I had studied law, and removed to Springfield to practice it. In 1846 I was elected to the Lower House of Congress ; was not a can- didate for re-election. From 1849 to •854- inclusive, I. practiced the law more assid- uously than ever before. Always a Whig in politics, and generally on the Whig elec- toral tickets, making active canvasses, I was losing interest in politics, when the repeal of the Missouri Compromise roused me again. What I have done since is pretty well known."
The early residence of Lincoln in Indi- ana was sixteen miles north of the Ohio River, on Little Pigeon Creek, one and a half miles east of Gentryville, within the present township of Carter. Here his mother died October 5, 18 18, and the next year his father married Mrs. Sally (Bush) Johnston, of Elizabethtown, Kentucky. She was an affectionate foster-parent, to whom Abraham was indebted for his first encour- agement to study. He became an eager reader, and the few books owned in the vicinity were many times perused. He worked frequently for the neighbors as a farm laborer ; was for some time clerk in a store at Gentryville; and became famous throughout that region for his athletic
powers, his fondness for argument, his in- exhaustible fund of humerous anecdote, as well as for mock oratory and the composi tion of rude satirical verses. In 1828 he made a trading voyage to New Orleans as '■ bow-hand " on a flatboat ; removed to Illinois in 1830 ; helped his father build a log house and clear a farm on the ncjrth fork of Sangamon River, ten miles west of Decatur, and was for some time employed in splitting rails for the fences — a fact which was prominently brought forward for a political purpose thirty years later.
In the spring of 185 1 he, with two of his relatives, was hired to build a flatboat on the Sangamon River and navigate it to New Orleans. The boat " stuck " on a mill-dam, and was got off with great labor through an ingenious mechanical device which some years later led to Lincoln's taking out a patent for "an improved method for lifting vessels over shoals." This voyage was memorable for another reason — the sight of slaves chained, mal- treated and flogged at New Orleans was the origin of his deep convictions upon the slavery question.
Returning from this voyage he became a resident for several years at New Salem, a recently settled village on the Sangamon, where he was successively a clerk, grocer, surveyor and postmaster, and acted as pilot to the first steamboat that ascended the Sangamon. Here he studied law, inter- ested himself in local politics after his return from the Black Hawk war, and became known as an effective "stump speaker." The subject of his first political speech was the improvement of the channel of the Sangamon, and the chief ground on which he announced himself (1832) a candi- date for the Legislature was his advocacy of this popular measure, on which subject his practical experience made him the high- est authority.
Elected to the Legislature in 1834 as a
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" Hemy Clay Whig," he rapidly acquired that command of language and that homely but forcible rhetoric which, added to his intimate knowledge of the people from which he sprang, made him more than a match in debate for his few well-educated opponents.
Admitted to the bar in 1837 he soon established himself at Springfield, where the State capital was located in 1839, largely through his influence ; became a successful pleader in the State, Circuit and District Courts ; married in 1842 a lady be- longing to a prominent famil}' in Lexington, Kentuck}-; took an active part in the Pres- idential campaigns of 1840 and 1844 as candidate for elector on the Harrison and Clav tickets, and in 1846 was elected to the United States House of Representatives over the celebrated Peter Cartwright. During his single term in Congress he did not attain any prominence.
He voted for the reception of anti-slaverv petitions for the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia and for the Wilmot proviso; but was chiefly remem- bered for the stand he took against the Mexican war. For several years there- after he took comparatively little interest in politics, but gained a leading position at the Springfield bar. Two or three non- political lectures and an eulogy on Henry Clay (1852) added nothing to his reputation.
In 1854 the repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the Kansas-Nebraska act aroused Lincoln from his indifference, and in attacking that measure he had the im- mense advantage of knowing perfectly well the motives and the record of its author, Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, then popu- larly designated as the " Little Giant." The latter came to Springfield in October, 1854, on the occasion of the State Fair, to vindi- cate his policy in the Senate, and the " Anti- Nebraska" Whigs, remembering that Lin-
coln had often measured his strength with
Douglas in the Illinois Legislature and be- fore the Springfield Courts, engaged him to improvise a reply. This speech, in the opinion of those who heard it, was one of the greatest efforts of Lincoln's life ; cer- tainly the most effective in his whole career. It took the audience by storm, and from that moment it was felt that Douglas had met his match. Lincoln was accordingly selected as the Anti-Nebraska candidate for the United States Senate in place of General Shields, whose term expired March 4, 1855, and led to several ballots; but Trumbull was ultimately chosen.
The second conflict on the soil of Kan- sas, which Lincoln had predicted, soon be- gan. The result was the disruption of the Whig and the formation of the Republican party. At the Bloomington State Conven- tion in 1856, where the new party first assumed form in Illinois, Lincoln made an impressive address, in which for the first time he took distinctive ground against slavery in itself.
At the National Republican Convention at Philadelphia, June 17, after the nomi- nation of Fiemout, Lincoln was put for- ward by the Illinois delegation for the Vice-Presidency, and received on the first ballot no votes against 259 for William L Dayton. He took a prominent part in the canvass, being on the electoral ticket.
In 1858 Lincoln was unanimously nomi- nated by the Republican State Convention as its candidate for the United States Senate in place of Douglas, and in his speech of acceptance used the celebrated illustration of a "house divided against itself" on the slavery question, which was, perhaps, the cause of his defeat. The great debate car- ried on at all the principal towns of Illinois between Lincoln and Douglas as rival Sena- torial candidates resulted at the time in the election of the latter ; but being widely cir- culated as a campaign document, it fixed the attention of the country upon the
ABRAHAM LINCOLN.
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former, as the clearest and most convinc- ing exponent of Republican doctrine.
Early in 1859 he began to be named in Illinois as a suitable Republican candidate for the Presidential campaign of the ensu- ing year, and a political address delivered at the Cooper Institute, New York, Febru- ary 27, i860, followed by similar speeches at New Haven, Hartford and elsewhere in New England, first made him known to the Eastern States in the light by which he had long been regarded at home. By the Re- publican State Convention, which met at Decatur, Illinois, May 9 and 10, Lincoln was unanimously endorsed for the Presi- denc}'. It was on this occasion that two rails, said to have been split by his hands thirty years before, were brought into the convention, and the incident contributed much to his popularity. The National Republican Convention at Chicago, after spirited efforts made in favor of Seward, Chase and Bates, nominated Lincoln for the Presidency, with Hannibal Hamlin for Vice-President, at the same time adopt- ing a vigorous anti-slaverj' platform.
The Democratic party having been dis- organized and presenting two candidates, Douglas and Breckenridge, and the rem- nant of the " American" party having put forward John Bell, of Tennessee, the Re- publican victory was an easy one, Lincoln being elected November 6 by a large plu- rality, comprehending nearly all the North- ern States, but none of the Southern. l"he secession of South Carolina and the Gulf States was the immediate result, followed a few months later by that of the border slave States and the outbreak of the great civil war.
The life of Abraham Lincoln became thenceforth merged in the history of his country. None of the details of the vast conflict which filled the remainder of Lin- coln's life can here be given. Narrowly escaping assassination by avoiding Balti-
more on his way to the capital, he reached Washington February 23, and was inaugu- rated President of the United States March 4, 1861.
In his inaugural address he said: " I hold, that in contemplation of universal law and the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied if not ex- pressed in the fundamental laws of all na- tional governments. It is safe to assert that no government proper ever had a pro- vision in its organic law for its own termi- nation. I therefore consider that in view of the Constitution and the laws, the Union is unbroken, and to the extent of my ability I shall take care, as the Constitution en- joins upon me, that the laws of the United States be extended in all the States. In doing this there need be no bloodshed or vio- lence, and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power conferred to me will be used to hold, occupy and possess the property and places belonging to the Government, and to col- lect the duties and imports, but beyond what may be necessary for these objects there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere. In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-country- men, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being your- selves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the Gov- ernment, while I shall have the most sol- emn one to preserve, protect and defend it."
He called to his cabinet his principal rivals for the Presidential nomination — Seward, Chase, Cameron and Bates; se- cured the co-operation of the Union Demo- crats, headed by Douglas ; called out 75,000 militia from the several States upon tiie first tidings of the bombardment of Fort Sumter, April 15; proclaimed a blockade of the Southern posts April 19; called an extra
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session of Congress for July 4, from which he asked and obtained 400,000 men and $400,000,000 for the war; placed McClellan at the head of the Federal army on General Scott's resignation, October 31; appointed Edwin M. Stanton Secretary of War, Jan- uary 14, 1862, and September 22, 1862, issued a proclamation declaring the free- dom of all slaves in the States and parts of States then in rebellion from and after January i, 1863. This was the crowning act of Lincoln's career — the act by which he will be chiefly known through all future time — and it decided the war.
October t6, 1863, President Lincoln called for 300,000 volunteers to replace those whose term of enlistment had expired ; made a celebrated and touching, though brief, address at the dedication of the Gettysburg military cemetery, November 19, 1863; commissioned Ulysses S. Grant Lieutenant-General and Commander-in- Chief of the armies of the United States, March 9, 1864; was re-elected President in November of the same year, by a large majority over General McClellan, with Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, as Vice- President; delivered a very remarkable ad- dress at his second inauguration, March 4, 1865; visited the army before Richmond the same month; entered the capital of the Con- federacy the day after its fall, and upon the surrender of General Robert E. Lee's army, April 9, was actively engaged in devising generous plans for the reconstruction of the Union, when, on the evening of Good Fri- day, April 14, he was shot in his box at Ford's Theatre, Washington, byJohnWilkes Booth, a fanatical actor, and expired early on the following morning, April 15. Al- most simultaneously a murderous attack was made upon William H. Seward, Secre- tary of State.
At noon on the 15th of April Andrew
Johnson assumed the Presidency, and active measures were taken which resulted in the death of Booth and the execution of his principal accomplices.
The funeral of President Lincoln was conducted with unexampled solemnity and magnificence. Impressive services were held in Washington, after which the sad procession proceeded over the same route he had traveled four years before, from Springfield to Washington. In Philadel- phia his body lay in state in Independence Hall, in which he had declared before his first inauguration "that I would sooner be assassinated than to give up the principles of the Declaration of Independence." He was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery, near Springfield, Illinois, on May 4, where a monument emblematic of the emancipation of the slaves and the restoration of the Union mark his resting place.
The leaders and citizens of the expiring Confederacy expressed genuine indignation at the murder of a generous political adver- sary. Foreign nations took part in mourn- ing the death of a statesman who had proved himself a true representative of American nationality. The freedmen of the South almost worshiped the memory of their de- liverer; and the general sentiment of the great Nation he had saved awarded him a place in its affections, second only to that held by Washington.
The characteristics of Abraham Lincoln have been familiarly known throughout the civilized world. His tall, gaunt, ungainly figure, homely countenance, and his shrewd mother-wit, shown in his celebrated con- versations overflowing in humorous and pointed anecdote, combined with an accu- rate, intuitive appreciation of the questions of the time, are recognized as forming the best type of a period of American history now rapidly passing away.
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ANDREW JOHNSON.
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the seventeenth Presi- dent of the United States, 1865-9, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, De- c e m b e r 29, 1808. His father died when he was four years old, and in his eleventh year he was ap- prenticed to a tailor. He nev- er attended school, and did not learn to read until late in his apprenticeship, when he suddenly acquired a passion for obtaining knowledge, and devoted all his spare time to reading.
After working two years as a journey- man tailor at Lauren's Court-House, South Carolina, he removed, in 1826, to Green- ville, Tennessee, where he worked at his trade and married. Under his wife's in- structions he made rapid progress in his education, and manifested such an intelli- gent interest in local politics as to be elected as " workingmen's candidate " al- derman, in 1828, and mayor in 1830, being twice re-elected to each office.
During this period he cultivated his tal- ents as a public speaker by taking part in a
debating societv, consisting largely of stu- dents of Greenville College. In 1835, and again in 1839, ^^ ^^'^^s chosen to the lower house of the Legislature, as a Democrat. In 1 84 1 he was elected State Senator, and in 1843, Representative in Congress, being re-elected four successive periods, until 1853, when he was chosen Governor of Tennessee. In Congress he supported the administrations of Tyler and Polk in their chief measures, especially the annexation of Texas, the adjustment of the Oregon boundary, the Mexican war, and the tariff of 1846.
In 1855 Mr. Johnson was reelected Gov- ernor, and in 1857 entered the United States Senate, where he was conspicuous as an advocate of retrenchment and of the Homestead bill, and as an opponent of the Pacific Railroad. He was supported by the Tennessee delegation to the Democratic convention in i860 for the Presidential nomination, and lent his influence to the Breckenridge wing of that party.
When the election of Lincoln had brought about the first attempt at secession in December, i860, Johnson took in the Senate a firm attitude for the Union, and in May, 1861, on returning to Tennessee, he was in imminent peril of suffering from
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PliES/DB.VTS OF THE UN /TED STATES.
popular violence for his loyalty to the " old flag." He was the leader of the Loyalists' convention of East Tennessee, and during the following winter was very active in or- ganizing relief for the destitute loyal refu- gees from that region, his own family being among those compelled to leave.
By his course in this crisis Johnson came prominently before the Northern public, and when in March, 1862, he was appointed by President Lincoln military Governor of Tennessee, with the rank of Brigadier-Gen- eral, he increased in popularity by the vig- orous and successful manner in which he labored to restore order, protect Union men and punish marauders. On the ap- proach of the Presidential campaign of 1864, the termination of the war being plainly foreseen, and several Southern States being partially reconstructed, it was felt that the Vice-Presidency should be given to a South- ern man of conspicuous loyalty, and Gov- ernor Johnson was elected on the same platform and ticket as President Lincoln; and on the assassination of the latter suc- ceeded to the Presidency, April 15, 1865. In a public speech two days later he said: " The American people must be taiight, if they do not already feel, that treason is a crime and must be punished; that the Gov- ernment will not always bear with its ene- mies; that it is strong, not only to protect, but to punish. In our peaceful history treason has been almost unknown. The people must understand that it is the black- est of crimes, and will be punished." He then added the ominous sentence: " In re- gard to my future course, I make no prom- ises, no pledges." President Johnson re- tained the cabinet of Lincoln, and exhibited considerable severity toward traitors in his earlier acts and speeches, but he soon inaug- urated a policy of reconstruction, proclaim- ing a general amnesty to the late Confeder- ates, and successively establishing provis- ional Governments in the Southern States.
These States accordingly claimed represen- tation in Congress in the following Decem- ber, and the momentous question of what shoidd be the policy of the victorious Union toward its late armed opponents was forced upon that body.
Two considerations impelled the Repub- lican majority to reject the policy of Presi. dent Johnson: First, an apprehension that the chief magistrate intended to undo the re- sults of the war in regard to slavery; and, sec- ond, the sullen attitude of the South, which seemed to be plotting to regain the policy which arms had lost. The credentials of the Southern members elect were laid on the table, a civil rights bill and a bill extending the sphere of the Freedmen's Bureau were passed over the executive veto, and the two highest branches of the Government were soon in open antagonism. The action of Congress was characterized by the Presi- dent as a " new rebellion." In July the cabinet was reconstructed, Messrs. Randall, Stanbury and Browning taking the places of Messrs. Denison, Speed and Harlan, and an unsuccessful attempt was made by means of a general convention in Philadel- phia to form a new party on the basis of the administration policy.
In an excursion to Chicago for the pur- pose of laying a corner-stone of the monu- ment to Stephen A. Douglas, President Johnson, accompanied by several members of the cabinet, passed through Philadelphia, New York and Albany, in each of which cities, and in other places along the route, he made speeches justifying and explaining his own polic}', and violently denouncing the action of Congress.
August 12, 1867, President Johnson re- moved the Secretary of War, replacing him by General Grant. Secretary Stanton retired under protest, based upon the ten- ure-of-ofhce act which had been passed the preceding March. The President then is- sued a proclamation declaring the insurrec-
ANDREW JOHNS DA'.
tion at an end, and that " peace, order, tran- quility and civil authority existed in and throughout the United States." Another proclamation enjoined obedience to the Constitution and the laws, and an amnesty was published September 7, relieving nearly all the participants in the late Rebellion from the disabilities thereby incurred, on condition of taking the oath to support the Constitution and the laws.
In December Congress refused to confirm the removal of Secretary Stanton, who thereupon resumed the exercise of his of- fice; but Februarv 21, 1868, President Johnson again attempted to remove him, appointing General Lorenzo Thomas in his place. Stanton refused to vacate his post, and was sustained by the Senate.
February 24 the House of Representa- tives voted to impeach the President for " high crime and misdemeanors," and March 5 presented eleven articles of impeachment on the ground of his resistance to the exe- cution of the acts of Congress, alleging, in addition to the oflense lately committed, his public expressions of contempt for Con- gress, in " certain intemperate, inflamma- tory and scandalous harangues" pronounced in August and September, 1866, and there- after declaring that the Thirty-ninth Con- gress of the United States was not a competent legislative body, and denying its power to propose Constitutional amend- ments. March 23 the impeachment trial began, the President appearing by counsel, and resulted in acquittal, the vote lacking
one of the two-thirds vote required for conviction.
The remainder of President Johnsons term of office was passed without any such conflicts as might have been anticipated. He failed to obtain a nomination for re- election by the Democratic party, though receiving sixty-five votes on the first ballot. July 4 and December 25 new proclamations of pardon to the participants in the late Rebellion were issuer*, but were of little effect. On the accession of General Grant to the Presidency, March 4, 1869, Johnson returned to Greenville, Tennessee. Unsuc- cessful in 1870 and 1872 as a candidate re- spectively for United States Senator and Representative, he was finall}- elected to the Senate in 1875, and took his seat in the extra session of March, in which his speeches were comparatively temperate. He died July 31, 1875, and was buried at Green- ville.
President Johnson's administration was a peculiarly unfortunate one. That he should so soon become involved in bitter feud with the Republican majority in Congress was certainly a surprising and deplorable inci- dent; yet, in reviewing the circumstances after a lapse of so many years, it is easy to find ample room for a charitable judgment of both the parties in the heated contro- versy, since it cannot be doubted that any President, even Lincoln himself, had he lived, must have sacrificed a large portion of his popularity in carrying out any pos. sible scheme of reconstruction.
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PRESIDENTS OF THE UN/TED STATES.
i«"^;*'LySSES SIMPSON GRANT, the eight- eenth President of the United States, \%6g-'yj, was born April 27, 1822, at Point Pleasant, '^ Clermont County, Ohio. His father was of^cotch descent, and a dealer in leather. At the age of seventeen he en- tered the Military Academy at West Point, and four years later graduated twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine, receiving the commission of Brevet Second Lieutenant. He was assigned to the Fourth Infantr}' and re- mained in the army eleven years. He was eneaefed in everv battle of the Mexican war except that of Buena Vista, and received two brevets for gallantr\'.
In 1848 Mr. Grant married Julia,daughter of Frederick Dent, a prominent merchant of St. Louis, and in 1854, having reached the grade of Captain, he resigned his commis- sion in the armv. For several years he fol- lowed farming near St. Louis, but unsuc- cessfully ; and in i860 he entered the leather trade with his father at Galena, Illinois.
When the civil war broke out in 1861, Grant was thirty-nine years of age, but en- tirely unknown to public men and without
any personal acquaintance with great affairs. President Lincoln's first call for troops was made on the 15th of April, and on the 19th Grant was drilling a company of volunteers at Galena. He also offered his services to the Adjutant-General of the army, but re- ceived no replv. The Governor of Illinois, however, employed him in the organization of volunteer troops, and at the end of five weeks he was appointed Colonel of the Twenty-first Infantry. He took command of his regiment in June, and reported first to General Pope in Missouri. His superior knowledge of military life rather surprised his superior officers, who had never before even heard of him, and they were thus led to place him on the road to rapid advance- ment. August 7 he was commissioned a Brigadier-General of volunteers, the ap- pointment having been made without his knowledge. He had been unanimously recommended bv the Congressmen from Illinois, not one of whom had been his personal acquaintance. For a few weeks he was occupied in watching the move- ments of partisan forces in Missouri.
September i he was placed in command of the District of Southeast Missouri, with headquarters at Cairo, and on the 6th, with- out orders, he seized Paducah, at the mouth of the Tennessee River, and commanding the navigation both oi that stream and oi
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the Ohio. This stroke secured Keiituck}- to the Union ; for the State Legislature, which had until then affected to be neutral, at once declared in favor of the Govern- ment. In November following, according to orders, he made :\ demonstration about eighteen miles below Cairo, preventing the crossing of hostile troops into Missouri ; but in order to accomplish this purpose he had to do some fighting, and that, too, with only 3,000 raw recruits, against 7,000 Con- federates. Grant carried off two pieces of artiller}^ and 200 prisoners.
After repeated applications to General Halleck, his immediate superior, he was allowed, in February, 1862, to move up the Tennessee River against Fort Henr}-, in conjunction with a naval fcjrce. The gun- boats silenced the fort, and Grant immedi- ately made preparations to attack Fort Donelson, about twelve miles distant, on the Cumberland River. Without waitingf for orders he moved his troops there, and with 15,000 men began the siege. The fort, garrisoned with 21,000 men, was a strong one, but after hard fighting on three successive days Grant forced an " Uncon- ditional Surrender " (an alliteration upon the initials of his name). The prize he capt- ured consisted of sixty-five cannon, 17,600 small arms and 14,623 soldiers. About 4,- 000 of the garrison had escaped in the night, and 2,500 were killed or wounded. Grant's entire loss was less than 2,000. This was the first important success won by the national troops during the war, and its strategic re- sults were marked, as the entire States of Kentucky and Tennessee at once fell into the National hands. Our hero was made a Major-General of Volunteers and placed in command of the District of West Ten- nessee.
In March, 1862, he was ordered to move up the Tennessee River toward Corinth, where the Confederates were concentrat- ing a large army